The articles cover diverse issues on Armenian and world history, archaeology and ethnography, art, culture, as well as on Armenian diaspora. Hence, the corresponding sections of History, Archaeology and Ethnography, Art and Culture, Diaspora Studies. The journal also includes reviews and materials about the merited scholars. There are pages commemorating and appraising the work of those who passed away. The journal is released twice a year.
Yerevan State University Publishing House
Linguistic and stylistic peculiarities of Armenian translations of J.W.Goethe's poetic works
The article studies the linguistic and linguistic-stylistic features of translations of J.W.Goethe's poetic works into Armenian. The main attention in the study is paid to the comparative analysis of linguistic features of Armenian translations of "Faust" and some famous poetic works of Goethe - on the material of translations made by P. Mikayelyan, as well as by the great Armenian poets Hovhannes Tumanyan and E. Charents. Despite the significant difference between the linguistic structures of the German and Armenian languages, their rhythmic and melodic structure, these authors managed to reach the top of the translation art. The translations under study make it possible to reveal the linguistic and stylistic features that enabled their authors to not only convey the content of these works as accurately as possible, but also to preserve the poetic spirit and artistic uniqueness of the original.
Copyright (c) 2025 Naira Shchilvyan, Vardush Makichyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Path of a Distinguished Historian and Renowned Researcher of the Great Patriotic War: On the Occasion of the 85th Anniversary of the Birth of Kliment Harutyunyan.
Copyright (c) 2025 Edik Minasyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Reflections on the Situation in Western Armenia in the Pages of “Horizon” on the Eve and at the Beginning of World War I
On the eve of the First World War, a rather difficult, complex and tense situation had developed in Western Armenia. Although the agreement on reforms had already been signed, the Young Turk authorities not only had no intention of implementing it, but also incited the incitement of anti-Armenian sentiments among the Kurds, Circassians and other Muslim communities. "Horizon", one of the influential Eastern Armenian periodicals published in Tbilisi, kept everything related to the reforms and the Armenian Question in the spotlight. Its pages constantly contained fresh information and analyses on the situation in Western Armenia. The daily strongly condemned the Armenian-displacing and depopulation-oriented practices of the Turkish authorities. Although European inspectors were already in Armenia, they were forced to leave as soon as the First World War began. The reforms again remained on paper: unfeasible.
Copyright (c) 2026 Armen Karapetyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Security Issues of the South Caucasus in the Context of the Israel–Iran Conflict
In the context of contemporary geopolitical and geo-economic realignments, the South Caucasus, with its strategic significance and importance, has become a focal point for the interests of regional players and major power centers. The encounter and intersection of these often conflicting interests, along with opposing stances on the formation of the region's new military-political architecture, render the South Caucasus security complex even more sensitive and fragile. The scientific study of these new realities is of paramount relevance, particularly when analyzed through the prism of the multilayered and fluctuating relations between Iran and Israel. These two countries, with historical paths spanning millennia, possess distinct political, socio-cultural, and demographic profiles, as well as differing perceptions of the essence of statehood. Their relations have evolved through several historical stages. Iran recognized the State of Israel as early as 1950. Starting in the 1950s, the intelligence services of both countries began to cooperate, and in 1959, they signed a memorandum of understanding regarding cooperation in defense and intelligence. During those years, Israel supported Iran's nuclear programs. After the Islamic Revolution of 1979, their relationship shifted drastically, transforming from the clandestine cooperation of the Pahlavi era into open hostility. This dramatic change was driven by the change of regime in Iran and its new ideological foundations, which were anti-Zionist in nature. In the post-Soviet years, the divergent interests and conflictual interactions of these two key regional actors have posed serious threats not only to the Middle East but also to the countries of the South Caucasus, specifically to the security of the Republic of Armenia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Eduard Zohrabyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Reactions to the Martyrdom of Christapor Mikaelyan in the Armenian Press and among the Caucasian Armenian Intelligentsia
The public, political, journalistic, and revolutionary activities of Christaphor Mikaelyan, founder and leader of the ARF, have been a subject of serious discussions among both his ideological allies and critics during the 120 years following his martyrdom. Extensive studies dedicated to him have been left by prominent ARF figures such as A. Aharonyan, M. Varandyan, Ye. Frangyan, and others. These works, as a rule, were created many years after K. Mikaelyan’s martyrdom, and their authors had the opportunity to present the image of the ARF leader against the backdrop of the turbulent and tragic events that transpired, and their lessons. Meanwhile, the words of appreciation and regret dedicated to the ARF leader on the occasion of his martyrdom, published in the Armenian press or found in the letters of his individual comrades-in-arms, have largely remained outside the attention of researchers. These evaluations, voiced under the fresh impression of the events, which also contain serious questions about the future of the ARF and the Armenian liberation struggle, allow for a more complete understanding of Christaphor’s image and reveal the real prestige he had not only within the ARF ranks but also among the Caucasian-Armenian intelligentsia. This submitted article is the first attempt to unveil these aspects. The obituaries and words of appreciation published in the press, as a rule, were created in the first weeks following the Vitosha disaster and are characterized by their Aesopian language. They bypass the revolutionary characteristics of the ARF leader and the actual circumstances of his martyrdom, primarily revealing and praising his undeniable human virtues: his modest lifestyle, selflessness, ideological devotion, being an “iron man,” a fanatic of thought and idea, a “radiant beacon, a lighthouse showing distant horizons...” for his disciples and friends. Specifically, the words of remembrance and respect by Leo and St. Ter-Avetikyan are drafted in this spirit. In contrast to the materials published in the legal and illegal press, and the obituary leaflets issued by the ARF Caucasian structures, the image of the martyred Christaphor is more fully presented in the hitherto unknown letters of the prominent poet Avetik Isahakyan. These letters reveal Christaphor’s role as the founder and leader of the ARF, his significant involvement in the Armenian liberation struggle, and his personal involvement in the poet’s life. The poet, who experienced a great personal shock due to the Vitosha disaster, makes serious and substantiated observations about Christaphor’s role in Armenian history, the irreversibility of his loss for the ARF, and the impossibility of finding an equivalent replacement for him.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hovik Grigoryan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
“Severe Style” in Suren Pipoyan’s Art (1960s–1980s)
The art of Suren Pipoyan underwent several stages of development. Responding to the challenges of his time and in accordance with his personal aspirations, he created a unique artistic style. During the Khrushchev "Thaw," amidst the liberalization of art, Soviet artists, including Armenian ones, gained the opportunity to familiarize themselves with declassified collections of Western avant-garde art and to visit exhibitions, particularly of Mexican muralists, Picasso, Léger and others. During these years, Suren Pipoyan’s artistic style underwent significant changes, acquiring elements of Cubism and Expressionism. Combined with his academic education, this led him to the "Severe Style," which emerged in the 1960s and to which he, with some modifications, remained loyal throughout his creative career. In addition to the influences of contemporary Western art, this was also facilitated by the idea of "labor romanticism," which was widespread in the Soviet Union in the 1960s-70s, as well as the personal biography and philosophy of the artist, who endured childhood hardships and World War II. The "Severe Style," free from the polished, falsely optimistic ideas and overly detailed depictions of Socialist Realism, replaced it with a truthful and unembellished new realism. Suren Pipoyan created an entire series of multi-figure compositions [12 paintings are analysed here], whose general characteristics include labor romanticism, heroism, monumentality, and a restrained color palette. These works stand out with their geometricized forms, strong masculine figures, and expressive emotional intensity. In his paintings, Pipoyan addressed themes of labor, war, genocide, loneliness, struggle, as well as the image of the artist and intellectual.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lilit Pipoyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Culture of Civil Participation as a Prerequisite for Democratization and Institutionalization of Civil Society in the Republic of Armenia (1991-2019)
Political participation is one of the main concepts in the study of political science, and at different times a number of theorists have interpreted it with a different theoretical and methodological approach. As a result of modern socio-political transformations, the theoretical analysis of the problem of participation shows that under the conditions of globalization, the forms and principles of people's involvement in political life are gradually changing, and the traditional tools and concepts of the exercise of power are being revised. The full interaction of civil society institutions with other actors of the socio-political system gradually leads to the institutionalization of participation and the provision of operational procedures. That is, each of the institutions, cooperating with other elements of the social system (legal, social, economic, political, etc.), will be able to provide structures of a civilized civil society.
Copyright (c) 2025 Arnak Sargsyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Scientific Significance of the Conference Dedicated to the 105th Anniversary of the Faculty of History: “Current Problems and Prospects for the Development of Armenian Studies’’
The Faculty of History at Yerevan State University, as one of the founding structures of this higher education institution, has a significant role in Armenia’s scientific, educational, and public life. An international conference titled “Modern Issues and Development Prospects of Armenian Studies” was organized within the framework of the 105 th anniversary of the faculty. The conference addressed the interconnectedness of education and science, the necessity of modernizing educational programs, and the growing applied value of historiography. The conference featured approximately one hundred reports from various countries, encompassing fields such as history, archaeology, ethnography, and art history. Particular emphasis was made on the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation for the further development of Armenian Studies. A part of the reports is being published in a special issue of the “History and Culture” journal. Although the conference did not aim to provide comprehensive answers, it served as a valuable platform to highlight sectoral issues and shape the pathways for the development of Armenian Studies and education in the field of history.
Copyright (c) 2025 Մխիթար Գաբրիելյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
History as a Process of Formation and Comprehension of American IdentityReflections on Tigran Yepremian’s university textbook “History of the United States of America”
The article examines Tigran Yepremian's university textbook "History of the United States of America," analyzing it from both research and pedagogical perspectives. The authors present the fundamental methodological approaches of the textbook, emphasizing its interdisciplinary methodology, the study of American identity paradigms, the examination of crises as catalysts for development, and the analysis of state institutional functions. Besides these institutional issues, the textbook discusses the historical development of the principal elements of American national identity – science and technology, culture and religion, social psychology and civil liberties based on modern humanities. In this view, the problems of American elite groups, various social movements, and outstanding personalities are carefully interpreted in the textbook. The concern with the significant aspects of the history-teaching activity occupies a central position in Yepremian’s textbook. It aims to develop a critical approach for students to the process of American history and its principal lessons to be learned and modeled as the important issues of training in history and humanities. All the said highlight the significance of Yepremian’s textbook for students and the general public.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tigran Yepremyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Interdisciplinary approach to the study of the history of the Caucasus region
In the past century and at the beginning of the 21st century, new disciplines were formed in historical science, conditioned by the use of new research approaches, principles and methods. The combination of the latest scientific approaches ensures the comprehensiveness of historical studies, creating an opportunity to study the past of societies from different perspectives and predict the future. In the article, the author discusses the necessity of applying an interdisciplinary approach to the study of local history, using the example of the Caucasian region. The author concludes that, at the present stage, a complex, in-depth, objective, and comprehensive study of the history of the Caucasus is impossible without an interdisciplinary understanding of historical events and phenomena. Only through such an approach is it possible to obtain objective scientific results, expand the boundaries of historical cognition, and form a complete and generalized scientific understanding of the Caucasian region’s role in world civilization.
Copyright (c) 2025 Susanna Serobyan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The tonir (hearth) in Armenian culture is deeply linked to the worship of fire and ancestors, leaving its mark on folklore, beliefs, festivals, and customs. It was not merely a household object but also held a multifunctional, sacred role, serving the religious needs of the family and community. In some villages, certain tonirs even acquired the significance of sacred places. The functions of the tonir ranged from baking bread to performing wedding and baptism rituals, healing to protection from evil, divination to transformation, wishes and vows, and as a pilgrimage site. The Armenians regarded it as the sanctified place of the home, based on the belief that the spirits of family ancestors lived within the tonir’s flame or at its edge. In villages without churches, the tonir even “substituted” for a Christian temple, where baptisms and weddings took place. In Armenian oral culture, legends, tales, and riddles have developed around the tonir, and it has been mentioned in traditional wedding songs as well. In almost every region of the Armenian Highlands, people swore “by the sacred tonir”—a trusted oath that encouraged others to believe in the truthfulness of the swearer’s words.
Copyright (c) 2025 Սիրանույշ Առաքելյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Masonic Activities of the First Rector of Yerevan State University Y.S. Ghambaryan
The Masonic activities of Yuri Stepan Ghambaryan (Ghambarov), the first rector of Yerevan State University, hasn’t been fully studied by Armenian historiography. The fact of his becoming a freemason and his activities were closely related to M.M. Kovalevski who was a famous Russian historian, jurist, sociologist, ethnographer, public and political figure. On May 16, 1905, in Paris Lodge No.288, under the guidance of M.M. Kovalevski, Y.S. Ghambaryan was ordained a First Degree Mason, On January 30, 1906, he was ordained a Second and then a Third Degree Mason in the "Cosmos" Lodge No.288, which rarely happened in freemasonry. He remained a member of that lodge until 1908, although he returned to Petersburg in August, 1906. On November, 1906, M.M. Kovalevsky founded the first lodge of Russian Political freemasonry "Polar Star" in Petersburg and Y.S. Ghambaryan joined it at the beginning of 1907. In 1906 in Petersburg Ghambaryan became one of the five main members of the "Phoenix" Lodge founded by Kovalevsky. On May 8, 1908, M.M. Kovalevsky, Y.S. Ghambaryan and their associates left the "Polar Star" Lodge because of disagreements with the leaders of the Moscow "Liberation" Lodge and founded their own "Cosmos" Lodge which didn’t function for long. In summer 1912, Y.S. Ghambaryan became a member of the masonic organization "Great East of the Peoples of Russia" in Moscow. During the period of politicization of Freemasonry in Russia, Y.S. Ghambaryan wasn’t active in masonic activities, as far as he wasn’t a member of any political party and wasn’t engaged in politics either. From that moment until the end of his life, he was engaged exclusively in professional and scientific activities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ֆելիքս Մովսիսյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Formation, activities and current situation of the Udi community in the Republic of Armenia
Some of the Udis refugees from Azerbaijan 1988-1990 settled in Armenia, mainly in the Tavush region in Noyemberyan, Debetavan, Haghtanak, Ptghavan, Bagratashen, Hakhtanak and other settlements. The Udis also settled in the city of Yerevan, in the Gegharkunik, Kotayk regions, etc. The number of ethnic Udis in different regions of the Republic of Armenia can range from about 200-500 to 1000-1500 people. There are many crypto-Udis in Armenia, which makes it difficult to determine their exact number. In 2018, an initiative group of the Udis of Armenia created the Udi public organization «Revival of the Udi People of Historical Albania». The main goals and objectives of the Udi community of the Republic of Armenia are as follows: 1) Study and popularization of the Udi language; 2) study of Udi history, 3) culture; 4) preserving the rituals, customs and traditions of the Udins in Armenia. During its existence in 2018-2024, the organization has already held a number of cultural and educational events. In the near future, the community is planning a number of other events. The Albanian-Udi community of Armenia closely cooperates with Armenian Caucasian scholars in order to develop and strengthen the centuries-old fraternal relations between the Udi and Armenian peoples.
Copyright (c) 2025 Գրիգորի Այվազյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
From Ethnography to Cultural Anthropology: on the Issue of the Boundaries of Social Sciences in Armenia
This article explores the ongoing disciplinary transition from ethnography to anthropology in post-Soviet Armenia—a process marked by considerable inconsistency and debate. The challenge of naming the discipline that studies the cultural characteristics of various groups emerged even during its initial development. Armenian intellectuals of the late 19th century participated in these discussions, often aligning with terminology and frameworks adopted in European academic traditions. However, the Soviet era imposed the term “ethnography” on the discipline in Armenia, a designation that has persisted into the post-Soviet period. This continuity has led to significant challenges both domestically and internationally. In global social sciences, “ethnography” is widely understood as a research method—primarily fieldwork—rather than a standalone discipline. Meanwhile, the discipline with similar content is better known as socio-cultural anthropology. This discrepancy complicates the external representation of Armenian academia and its institutional structure. Domestically, the term adds confusion, as it is often equated with the mission of preserving traditional culture, overshadowing its broader theoretical and methodological scope. The article aims to stimulate a critical discussion on the urgent need to reform and modernize the Armenian system of social sciences, including updating terminologies to align with international standards and accurately reflect the evolving content of the field.
Copyright (c) 2025 Գայանե Շագոյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Intangible Cultural Heritage as an Opportunity for the Development of Armenian Studies
In recent decades, the field of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) has become one of the priorities of global cultural policy. Beyond focusing on tangible structures and sites, international cultural policy has begun to emphasize traditions and their bearers, considering them crucial for the future preservation of cultural heritage within modern cultural environments. In 2006, the Republic of Armenia ratified UNESCO's 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, thus aligning itself with the international agenda. Incorporating elements of a country's cultural heritage into various international and national lists of intangible heritage involves more than bureaucratic and state policy processes; it primarily requires substantive and conceptual approaches. In this regard, Armenian studies play a decisive role. This paper explores the opportunities and potential of Armenian studies within the context of dynamic global and local ICH policy developments. Key issues discussed include re-evaluating methodological approaches in research in Armenian studies, the potential for "translating" Armenia’s cultural heritage and representing it in global databases, and the challenges and opportunities of creating a research environment that supports ICH standards. At the same time, the field of intangible cultural heritage offers methodological potential for Armenian studies, particularly in conducting interdisciplinary research with real policy impact. Realizing this potential could be mutually beneficial for both the advancement of Armenian studies and the preservation of intangible cultural heritage.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ռուզաննա Ծատուրյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Photograph as a Source for the Armenian studies and a Factual Evidence of Documenting History
Since the invention of photography, specialist from various fields have collaborated with photographers to enhance the depth and clarity of their studies. Each photograph accompanying written texts serves a unique purpose in conveying information. Photographs capturing key moments in Armenian history since the 19th century provide invaluable pictorial evidence, now considered essential sources for Armenian studies and the documentation of historical events. The examples presented in this article demonstrate that, today, photographs play a crucial role in supporting and enriching scientific research, serving as undeniable factual evidence.
Copyright (c) 2025 Իվեթ Թաջարյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Gorbachev’s Perestroika and the National Question
The Soviet Union was a unique state formation where national policy was marked by contradictions: on one hand, it promoted national identity, while on the other, it aimed at assimilation. Soviet ideology treated the national question as secondary, assuming that socialism would erase ethnic distinctions. However, during the Perestroika period, national tensions escalated, contributing to the destabilization of the state. Local conflicts, such as the Fergana and Osh riots, the Georgian-Abkhaz and Nagorno-Karabakh conflicts, and protest movements in the Baltic states and Crimea, highlighted deep-rooted contradictions. The Soviet Union’s ineffective national policy and Gorbachev’s failure to provide a conceptual solution accelerated the USSR’s collapse, making the national question one of the key factors in its downfall.
Copyright (c) 2025 Արտակ Խաչատրյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Repertoire Policy in The Period of Repressions in Soviet Armenia (1936-1954)
In the early period of Soviet Armenia, the relations between politicians and culture were closely related. Without the permission of the Center for Culture Agitation, which was under strict local and Moscow control, the repertoire of any cultural sphere was not compiled. Poems and songs dedicated to Lenin-Stalin, as well as Beria were considered compulsively in the program, and the communist symbols - hammer and sickle, the star was mainly expressed in dance performances. During the period of the Cult of Personality (1920-1954), the task was to create an international, socialist culture. The standard of evaluation of the artistic work was considered to be "National in form, socialist in content". Our task to discuss dance culture during the period of Stalinist Repressions, in particular to reflect on the banning of folk dances and the programmatic politics of creating new contemporary dance performances. Culture, particularly dance, took on an ideological tone. The figures of Stalin, Lenin, Beria have been considered political symbols were included in the dance performances. Before the started the concert as a rule had been performed the international song of the “Nations of the Soviet Union”, then pronounced and were played of poems, songs with political content, which have been dedicated to Stalin, Lenin and Beria. During that period, Srbuhi Lisitsyan staged agit-performances: “Cominter”, “Struggle against cracks”, “Wounded flag bearer”, “Hammer and sickle”, “German police and communist”, “Viva red China”, as well as “Pioneer” ballet, among the performances of Tatul Altunyan's “Song-dance” ensemble is “Soldier's Dance”, “Dance of Sevan fishermen” and others. It should be noted that in connection with the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1938 the festival of “literature and Art” was organized in Moscow, in which Armenia also participated. Armenia was represented by Tatul Altunyan's “Song-dance” ensemble, Srbuhi Lisitsyan's “Rhythm and Plastic” Studio, and ‘’Sasun’’ dance group from Ashnak village led by Vahram Aristakesyan. The Sasun’s folk dance presenting in the stage was an extremely bold move during the active period of Stalinist repression, which did not remain without consequences. In the same year, Vahram Aristakesyan was accused of espionage and the great figure of the dance art was arrested. In the Soviet period, reference to traditional culture was prohibited and negatively assessed, it was impossible to create homeland-diaspora ties, and those who tried to create them were condemned with heavy charges.
Copyright (c) 2025 Նարինե Շամամյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Traditional Skills in Chechil Cheese-Making and Preservation Among Armenians
Chechil (string, braided) cheese was (is) popular in not all Armenian regions. Chechil is made mainly from fatless cow’s milk. However, according to the prestige enjoyed by the people, chechil made from sheep’s milk came first, cow’s milk came second and buffalo’s milk came third. Even in different villages of the same region this type of cheese is known by different names and nuances of preparation. Chechil is obtained from sour milk. To become sour quickly, some housewives add salt, vinegar, etc. Sometimes the milk curdles on its own without ferment. Some housewives get chechil by processing the curd mass by skillful movements of fingers, others-with chopsticks. For long-term use chechil is stored either in a barrel full of brine, or horats/kokhats (pressed, buried) often with the addition of spices and other types of dairy products. The ability to make chechil is still a reason for women to boast. In the past, a braid like white hair was made from chechil and sent to the bride as a gift on holidays, so that the bride’s hair would be long and she would be with her husband until they turned white.
Copyright (c) 2025 Հասմիկ Հարությունյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Mapping of Terraced Gardens through Geographic Information System (The Case Study of Armenian Culture)
The article presents the spatial characteristics and distribution of terrace gardens in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The application of it method allows not only for the mapping of terrace gardens but also for uncovering their zonal distribution based on sea level and landscape features through spatial analyses. One of the traditional methods of land development and use is the formation of agricultural terrace systems, which is characteristic of many Armenian settlements. The creation of terrace systems helped protect sloping cultivated lands from soil erosion. In this regard, the geographical environment becomes the primary factor responsible for the creation of terraces. The article also addresses the principles, methods, and challenges of terracing, emphasizing the interconnection between terrace gardens and the landscape.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ռաֆիկ Գաբրիելյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
An attempt to separate cimmerian culture from the cimmerian-scythian cultural community penetrated into the Armenian Highland (On Archaeological Data)
Because of the unity of Cimmerian and Scythian cultures, separating Cimmerian culture from the Cimmerian-Scythian cultural community is difficult. Yet, the similarity of these cultures is morphological rather than typological, meaning that these tribal groups share the same economical-cultural type but represent different archaeological cultures. Specifically, Cimmerian culture lacks a constituent of the “Scythian triad” – beast style. Instead, a geometrical ornament, especially, rhombus inscribed into circle is typical for Cimmerian culture. The specificities of Cimmerian and Scythian funereal constructions, funerary sculptures, and funerary rituals (particularly, skeleton positions) are discussed. Differences were observed in weapon sets and horse trappings. So far, the study identified 57 sepulchres belonging to 14 graveyards, 5 “other” graveyards, and 9 settlements that have the needed quantity of characteristics/items typical for Cimmerian culture. An inference could be made that Shirak Plateau was one of the main regions where Cimmerians were settled, where from they could penetrate into the western part of Aragatsotn province. Their trace is also detected in the West of the Armenian Highland – in provinces Bardzr Hayk, Tsopk and Aghdznik. Presumably, a considerable mass of Cimmerian tribes settled next to the Minor Armenia – in Gamirk, where from they moved to the North and West.
Copyright (c) 2025 Գարեգին Թումանյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Iron Age complex of the Mastara mountain valley in the system of cultural landscape of Karmrashen Saravand
The article is dedicated to the Mastara mountain valley, one of the zones forming the cultural landscape of the Karmrashen peninsula, where we have confirmed a number of newly discovered (left out of scientific circulation) monuments, which, according to preliminary observation, form a single complex. The Karmrashen Peninsula extends in the southwestern parts of the Aragatsotn Marz of the Republic of Armenia and the western parts of the Armavir Marz, at the southwestern foot of the Aragats massive, between the Talin Peninsula and the Akhuryan and Araks rivers. It is rich enough in historical and cultural monuments, because it was included from different sides and was part of Shirak and Aragatsotn provinces on the one hand, bearing the influences of their cultural developments, from the Bronze-Iron Age to the Middle Ages. Based on the above, this zone has always been in the center of attention of researchers. Archaeological expeditions of different years of the Archaeological Research Laboratory of Yerevan State University have a particularly great contribution to the study of the cultural landscape of this peninsula (study: P. Avetisyan, E. Asatryan, H. Ohanyan and others). Perhaps we are dealing with a center of local significance typical of the Iron Age (9-6th centuries BC), which, together with other similar neighboring examples (Lanjik, Tsakasar, Akunk 1, etc.) formed larger units, which are known from the Bianic inscriptions are under the name Etuinian «countries».
Copyright (c) 2025 Լևոն Մկրտչյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Materials Characteristic of the Bronze and Iron Periods, discovered by R. Torosyan from Excavations of Early Agricultural Sites in the Ararat Valley
Armenian archaeologist Rafik Torosyan is known to the scientific community mainly for his works devoted to the formation and development of the Early Agricultural society in Armenia. In fact, the sphere of his scientific interests was much wider, covering practically all periods available for archeological research. R. Rorosyan’s excavations of Early Agricultural settlements of the Ararat Valley in 1960-1970. allowed to interpret the most ancient culture of the region in a new view, to reveal the peculiarities and characteristic features of the Neolithic - Chalcolithic culture. At the same time, materials from the upper horizons, characteristic of the Bronze and Iron periods (with the exception of materials from burials in the territory of the open biofilter of Echmiadzin) are rarely mentioned in the scientific literature. Although materials from the Early Bronze Age are scarce, their wide representation suggests a fairly dense settlement of this territory. During this period, the study area was in the sphere of attraction of Mohrablur. Materials characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age are presented both in burials and settlements. Funerary monuments are characteristic of the entire Middle Bronze Age, while the territory of settlements is re-populated starting from the beginning of the 2-nd millennium BC. and are characterized by painted ceramics. The development of the territory continues in the Late Bronze and Early Iron periods, when this territory was part of the Metsamor agglomeration.
Copyright (c) 2025 Անժելա Թադևոսյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Remarks on some historical-cultural developments in the Armenian Highland during the late bronze – early iron ages
Formed in Northern Mesopotamia and southern Armenian Highland, Mittani kingdom occupied enormous territory, named "Fertile Crescent" in historiography. In the war against Assyria under Shalmaneser I, Mittani and its allies suffered heavy defeat, yet, continued struggling against Assyria’s expansionist ambitions. Armenian Highland’s provinces Harq (Turuberan region) and Aragatsotn (Ayrarat region) became powerful centers of resistance. Probably, this was the consequence of migration of population groups intolerant to Assyrian domination to the north. This is evidenced by archaeological data and toponymical parallels, also, data preserved in Armenian historians’ works drawn from "Hayk and Bel" legend. Inscriptions of Tukulti-Ninurta I state that the rebellious country of Kadmukhi was occupied and a tribute imposed on it. There are parallels of some Mittani toponyms in Armenian Highland. Possibly, during the discussed period, the population of Mittani migrated in two directions – to the north-west and north-east. The cultural ties between people of Mittani and Armenian Highland covered various spheres: writing, military affairs, glyptics, metalworking, pottery, etc. Some traditions of Mittani were preserved in Armenian Highland and successfully developed later-on. Iron Age culture of Armenian Highland, immediately preceding the ancient Armenian culture (from late period to early phase, inclusive), could be named “most ancient Armenian culture”.
The Representation of Armenians and the Armenian Question in Turkey’s 11th Grade Secondary School History Textbook
Textbooks of Turkish history is considered one of the most influential methods of denial of the Armenian Genocide as well as the formation of negative mindset towards the Armenian people. In the handbooks of Turkish history Armenians are presented under an extremely negative light. The period of Armenian question from 1878 to 1923 is presented with rough errors and deliberate distortions of historical facts. Furthermore, according the logic of handbooks the existence of our people and the Armenian question are considered to be a threat to Turkish national security.
Copyright (c) 2025 Քրիստինե Մելքոնյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Western Armenian phrases and their teaching as a means of enriching students' vocabulary
Phrases can appear in a sentence expressing figurative and literal meanings. Phrases with constituents expressing formative units are considered by many researchers to be the colorful side of the language. Therefore, students' language should be taught in such a way that it can lead to the development of skills. In fact, the level of mastery of phrases serves as an important indicator of target language proficiency. Teaching and learning phrases units helps to reveal the cognitive processes of the mind in creative thinking. At the same time, it contributes to the formation of other language skills: speaking, reading, etc. It can also lead to significant gains in vocabulary and stylistic awareness, which includes conscious perception and understanding of changes in the basic form and meaning of sentences, the stylistic coherence of the original text, and the creation of new meaning in the overall original text. The teaching of phrases at school has the main purpose of enriching students' vocabulary with figurative expressions, as well as introducing the history of the emergence of phrases, informing students about Armenian dialects, folklore, traditions, and myths. The article studies the role of Western Armenian phrases in the language teaching process and the modern methods of teaching them. Special attention is paid to the role of phrases as one of the indicators of language proficiency. With this work, we try to show what modern methods can be used to teach Western Armenian phrases, based on the fact that Western Armenian textbooks do not teach this topic.
Copyright (c) 2025 Պէթթի Քիլէրճեան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Role of the "Kachar" Scientific Center in the Advancement of Armenian Studies in Artsakh
After the declaration of independence, significant progress was made in the Republic of Artsakh in the fields of state-building, as well as in spiritual, cultural, and scientific-educational spheres. To support these processes, the "Kachar" Scientific Center was established in 2006 in Shushi, which played a significant role, particularly in the development of Armenian Studies and the research of Artsakh's history. The professional library and archive of Artsakh's history housed unique materials on the Artsakh Movement, the national liberation war of 1991-1994, and the periodical press published in Artsakh. In order to address current issues in Armenian Studies and introduce unpublished documents into the scientific discourse, the Center published the "Kachar Bulletin" and later the Yearbook, along with methodological works, collections of documents, and studies on the history of journalism in Artsakh. In 2008, in collaboration with the Shusha History Museum, the Center conducted research on newly discovered monuments. In 2011, the Center successfully implemented a grant project aimed at the development of Armenian Studies, engaging young specialists in the field. A key area of the Center's activity was the organization of international scientific conferences on strategically important topics and the publication of conference materials, which provided a significant boost to the development of Armenian Studies in Artsakh. In November 2020, Shusha was captured, resulting in the loss of an important part of the intellectual heritage of the Armenian people, which had been carefully collected and preserved at the Center. However, public initiatives to develop the Artsakh school of Armenian Studies continued in Stepanakert, and in 2023, after the complete occupation of Artsakh, the Center moved to Yerevan, where it continues its Armenian Studies research. The Center's publications have been digitized and are available on the website of the National Library of Armenia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Մհեր Հարությունյան, Հովիկ Ավանեսով https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The Crisis of the Armenian Community of Syria and the Repatriation (2012-2018)
As a consecuance of the war in Syria, started in March, 2011, and still continuing in different parts of the country, also Armenian-populated villages and towns, including Aleppo, Damascus, Kessab, were completely destroyed and set on fire. The Armenian churches, schools, national buildings, houses were looted, desecrated and set on fire. As a result of the emigration that started, as well as the victims, the Armenian community has become significantly thinner. About 10.000 of 80.000 Armenians remain. Thousands of Armenian-Syrians have taken shelter among other countries (Lebanon, Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, the USA, Canada, Sweden, etc.) also in the Motherland, in the Republics of Armenia. From the beginning of the war to 2018, 22 thousand Syrian Armenians arrived in Armenia. The RA government, particularly the Ministry of Diaspora (2008-2018), supported those who wanted to repatriate in every possible way and contributed to the socio-economic and educational integration of immigrants in the Motherland. Under the conditions of a precarious and unpromising future and the gradually threatening dangers in Syria, as well as in the Near and Middle East and the Western countries, in addition to the dreadful geopolitical developments imperiling humanity and civilization, and a 100 years following the Armenian Genocide, it is advisable to ideologically and psychologically prepare those living in foreign lands and facing the danger of the maintenance of their physical existence and assimilation to make a transition from a century-old passive and inefficient Armenian-preserving policy into a practical land-preserving policy, into Repatriation to the Native Country.
Copyright (c) 2025 Քնարիկ Ավագյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Functions of Armenology in the Era of Globalization
Currently, Armenology has turned into a scientific worldview based on an integral understanding of the results of specific sciences about Armenia and Armenians, which, of course, does not have its own theory and method, but in a new competitive environment it can overcome foreign views about Armenia and Armenians formed from the outside by way of transformation of the Armenian view integrated within the independent state. Therefore, the task of the state operating in a new competitive environment is to form a management system of Armenology, an Armenology system, in order to scientifically substantiate and solve the tasks of self-knowledge, self-preservation, self-reproduction and self-expression of both its own citizens and at an appropriate level. Until now, Armenology had four main functions: scientific-cognitive, didactic-educational, formation of values ​​and development on its own basis, and protection and propaganda. In the present article, we have come to the conclusion that a fifth, civilizing function should be added to them. The reason is that the discovery and consolidation of the historical nucleus of Indo-Europeans, from India and Iran to the Romano-Germanic world, can resist the "Turan" project, which has been challenging the world civilization for a long time, which will allow to neutralize the opportunities of the Turan project to become a global region. Such a perspective has its geopolitical and economic aspect, the India – Iran – Armenia – Georgia - Europe communication axis, which, can be considered as a scientific task of discovering the cultural commonalities of the Indo-European or Aryan peoples.
Copyright (c) 2025 Գևորգ Խուդինյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
The State of the Study of the History of the Third Republic of Armenia and the Problems of Armenian Historiography
The article analyzes the current state of the study of the history of the Third Republic of Armenia. In the direction of the study of the history of the republic, the available literature is divided into two parts. The first part relates to the sources and studies of the process of formation of independence of the Republic of Armenia and the field of domestic policy of the Republic of Armenia. The first part also includes studies on socio-political life, formation of the army, socio-economic, including scientific, educational and cultural life. In the field of studying the domestic and foreign policy of the Third Republic of Armenia, there are defended dissertations on the above-mentioned issues, which complement the results of research on the history of the republic. Among the printed sources, collections highlighting the activities of various international structures of the republic, containing rich documentary materials and serious scientific analyses, as well as the results of the activities of various sectors of the Third Republic of Armenia, including the national assessment reports of the Republic of Armenia, information collections describing the activities of the UN in Armenia, annual issues of the Human Development Index, the National Report, annual issues of the Social and Economic Situation of Armenia for January-December published by the National Statistical Agency of the Republic of Armenia, issues of statistical yearbooks and statistical booklets of Armenia, annual analytical reports and collections reflecting the social state of Armenia, etc should be noted. In studying the history of the republic, the author emphasizes the creation of special schools for the study of the history of the republic, one of the best manifestations of which is the defense of about two dozen dissertations under his scientific supervision, covering various areas of the republic’s spheres of activity. The state of knowledge of the history of the Third Republic of Armenia proves that, despite three voluminous monographs published by the author of these lines, there is still no full-fledged monograph covering the international situation and foreign policy of the Third Republic of Armenia up to the present day. The author of these lines has begun to solve this problem. In the end, several very important recommendations have been given for a complete picture of the study, which will certainly help in terms of significantly increasing the effectiveness of research in this area.
Copyright (c) 2025 Էդիկ Մինասյան https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0