Vol. 16 No. 2(43) (2025)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46991/BYSU.C/2025.16.2
Published: 2025-12-01

Full Issue

Theory of State and Law

  • Theory of State and Law

    Forms of Systematization of Legal Acts

    Sergey Kocharyan
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    Abstract

    The systematization of law is a permanent legal activity aimed at unifying legal acts with common features, the goals of which are to improve existing legal provisions, eliminate contradictory regulations, gaps, outdated provisions, and ensure the convenience of using legal material.

    Within the framework of this work, the differences and peculiarities of the forms of consolidation of legal acts have been studied, their theoretical and practical meanings have been analyzed, the effectiveness of the application of the forms existing in our legal system has been analyzed, and the need for legislative consolidation has been substantiated. As a result of the study, a grouping of systematization forms available in professional literature was also performed.

    References

    Abdieva D. A. Sistematizaciya zakonodatelstva v usloviyax perexoda k novomu texnologicheskomu ukladu: dis. … kand. yurid. nauk: 5.1.1. Teoretiko-istoricheskie pravovie nauki / Abdieva Datkayim Akilbekovna. – Moskva, 2024, p. 192.

    Abdieva D. A. Vidi sistematizacii zakonodatelstva v usloviyax sovremennoy dinamiki prava // Obrazovanie i pravo. – 2023. – № 6, s. 73-77, DOI 10.24412/2076-1503-2023-6-73-77.

    Alekseev S. S. Obshaya teoriya prava: uchebnik. – 2-e izd., pererb. i dop. – M.: Prospekt, 2009, s. 576.

    Arzamasov Yu. G., Pevcova E. A. Rol cifrovizacii v sistematizacii yuridicheskoy terminologii // Vestnik Moskovskogo gosudarstvennogo oblostnogo universiteta. Seriya: Yurisprudenciya. 2022 / № 4, s. 24-34, DOI: 10.18384/2310-6794-2022-4-24-34.

    Ashuraxunova Sh. T. Systematization of legislation: theoretical legal analysis based on foreign experience. Central Asian Journal of Education and Innovation, Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2024, p. 196–202, doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11261090.

    Boshno S. V. Uchot normativnix pravovix aktov / Pravo i sovremennie gosudarstva 5/2018, s. 58-64, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14420/ru.2018.5.6.

    Danielyan G. Iravastegts gortsuneutyun ev iravabanakan texnika. – Usumnakan dzernark. – Er. “Tigran Mets” hrat. 2021, 255 ej.

    Gordienko P. Yu. Sushchnost i yuridicheskaya priroda sistematizacii prava // Vestn. Volgogr. gos. un-ta. Ser. 5, Yurisprud. 2012. № 2 (17), s. 247-256, https://j.jvolsu.com/index.php/ru/component/attachments/download/263 (accessed on 26.09.2025).

    Istoriya gosudarstva i prava zarubejnix stran: Uchebnik dlya vuzov: V 2 ch. Ch. 2 / Pod obsh. red. O. A. Jidkova i N. A. Krasheninnikovoy. – 2-e izd., ster. – M.: Izdatelstvo NORMA, 2003, p. 720.

    Karnauxova E. V. Ponyatie inkorporacii lokalnix normativnix pravovix aktov. Yuridicheskaya nauka i pravooxranitelnaya praktika. № 3 (6), 2008, s. 4-14, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ponyatie-inkorporatsii-lokalnyh-normativnyh-pravovyh-aktov/viewer (accessed on 26.09.2025).

    Kartashov V. N. Teoriya pravovoy sistemi obshestva. V 2 t. T. 1. – Yaroslavl: YarGU, 2005, p. 547.

    Kashanina T. V. Yuridicheskaya texnika: uchebnik. – M.: Eksmo, 2007, p. 512.

    Lazarev V. V., Lipen S. V. Teoriya gosudarstva i prava: uchebnik dlya vuzov. – 5-e izd., ispr. i dop. –Moskva: Izdatelstvo Yurayt, 2020, s. 521.

    Mironov V. O., Zin N. V. Sistematizaciya zakonodatelstva: ponyatie i vidi. Pravo i gosudarstvo: teoriya i praktika. 2019. № 7(175), s. 48-50, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sistematizatsiya-zakonodatelstva-ponyatie-i-vidy/viewer (accessed on 26.09.2025).

    Moskalev S. O., Akieva P. X. Sistematizaciya zakonodatelstva: ponyatie i vidi // Liberalno-demokraticheskie cennosti, 2021 №4, https://liberal-journal.ru/PDF/01UNLD421.pdf (accessed on 19.09.2025).

    Muxaev R. T. Teoriya gosudarstva i prava: uchebnik. – 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. – M.: YUNITI-DANA, 2005, p. 543.

    Problemi obshey teorii prava i gosudarstva / Pod obsh. red. V. S. Nersesyanca. – M.: Norma, 2004, s. 832.

    Protasov V. N. Teoriya gosudarstva i prava: uchebnoe posobie dlya vuzov - 5-e izd., pererab. i dop. – M.: Izdatelstvo Yurayt, 2020, p. 192.

    Retuov V. P., Vankov A. V. K voprosu o konsolidacii kak forme sistematizacii zakonodatelstva // Pravo i sovremennie gosudarstva. 2013. № 3, s. 16-20.

    Teoriya gosudarstva i prava: Uchebnik / pod red. A. S. Pigolkina. – M.: Yurist-Izdat, 2006, p. 613.

    Teoriya gosudarstva i prava: Uchebnik / Pod red. R. A. Romashova. – SPB.: Izdatelstvo R. Aslanova “Yuridicheskiy centr Press”, 2005, s. 630.

    Tomin V. A. Yuridicheskaya texnika: uchebnoe posobie. – Sankt-Peterburg, 2015, p. 84.

    Yashchuk T. F. Sistematizaciya rossiyskogo zakonodatelstva v sovetskiy period: monografiya.-Omsk: Izd-vo Om. gos. un-ta, 2021, s. 414.

    Yuridicheskaya texnika: uchebnik / pod red. V. M. Baranova. – Moskva: Prospekt, 2021, s. 648.

Constitutional law

  • Constitutional law

    On The Main Issues Of Implementing The Institute Of Citizens' Legislative Initiative

    Ruzanna Hakobyan, Hranush Hakobyan
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    Abstract

    The article is devoted to the issues of implementing the institute of citizens’ legislative initiative. As a result of the constitutional amendments of 2015, a new institute of direct or immediate implementation of democratic power was adopted in the Republic of Armenia, the implementation of which is fraught with serious legislative and organizational problems and imperfections. The article examines the peculiarities of the institution of citizens’ legislative initiative in the Republic of Armenia and other countries using the method of comparative legal analysis.

    The aim of the article is to analyze the key issues of proposing a draft law by citizens with the right to vote through a civil initiative, and the objective is to reveal the importance of citizens’ legislative initiative and the difficulties of its implementation using the example of the Republic of Armenia and other states. The theoretical basis of the article is scientific works related to the topic, and the normative legal basis is the Constitutions of the Republic of Armenia and other states, as well as relevant legislative acts. As a result of the study, it is proposed to review the number of citizens exercising the right of legislative initiative, the number of signatures required to identify citizens for holding a referendum on the same issue and for demanding a referendum in general, and other issues. The article is topical and contains scientific novelty, related to the proposals for constitutional amendments in the Republic of Armenia on how to clarify and improve the normative legal foundations of the institution of civic initiative aimed at strengthening direct democratic power.

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    Vajnov C. C., Institut pravotvorcheskoj iniciativi grajdan v sisteme napodovlastija v Possijskoj Federacii: Dissertacija kandidata juridicheskix nauk: 12.00.02, Saratov, 2007.

    Vasileva T. A., Popov H. Ju., Vstupitelnaja statja // Italija. Konstitucija I zakonodatelnie akti, M., 1998, s. 22.

    Grazhdanskaya zakonodatelnaya iniciativa kak forma osushchestvleniya naseleniem gosudarstvennoj vlasti // http://canonlex.com/grazhdanskaya-zakonodatelnaya-initsiativa-kak-forma-osushchestvleniya-naseleniem-gosudarstvennoj-vlasti.html

    Grib V. V., Zakonotvorcheskaja (pravotvorcheskaja) iniciativa kak forma vlijanija institutov grajdanskogo obshchectva na organi gosudarstvennoj vlasti // Konstitucionnoe i municipalnoe pravo, № 12, 2010․

    Dvorak A. A., Pealizacija konstitucionnogo prava grajdan na obrashchenie v Poccijskoj Federacii, Dissertacija kandidata juridicheskix nauk, M., 2003.

    Zimmerman Dj., Prjamaja demokratija v Soedinjonnix Shtatax Ameriki: opit i problemi // Vestnik MGU, Serija «Pravo», 1991, № 5․

    Koslova E. I., Kutafin O. E., Konstitucionnoe pravo Possii, M., 1995.

    Konstitucionnoe pravo zarubejnix stran, Pod red. M. V. Baglaja, Ju. I. Lejbo, L. M. Эntina, M.:Horma, 2004.

    Krivosheeva T. A., Harodnaja iniciativa kak forma pravotvorchestva: pravovie problemi zakonodatelnogo zakreplenija // Poccijckoe zakonodatelstvo v covremennix uclovijax. Materiali VI ejegodnoj Vserossijskoj nauchno-prakticheskoj konferencii, Brjansk, Gruppa kompanij "Desjatochka", 2008․

    Hudnenko L. A., Instituti neposredstvennoj demokratii v sisteme mestnogo samoupravlenija Poccii, M.: INION PAN, 2000.

    Rudenko V. H., Institut narodnoj pravotvorcheskoj iniciativi, M., 2001 // https://ifp.uran.ru/files/publ/eshegodnik/2001/16.pdf

    Sergeeva A. A., Ob otdelnix problemax realizacii obshchestvennix iniciativ grajdan // Konstitucionnoe i municipalnoe pravo, 2015, N 8.

    Teorija gosudarctva i prava, Pod red. N. I. Matusova, A. V. Malko, M., 1997.

    Chirkin V. E., Sakonodatelnaja vlast, M., 2010; Shajo A., Samoogranichenie vlasti: Kratkij kurs konstitucionalisma, M., 2001.

    Thomas E. Gronin, Direkt Demokraci: The Politikc of Initiative, Referendum, and Recall, First published bai Harvard Juniversiti Press, 1989.

Criminal Law

  • Criminal Law

    Restriction of liberty within the system of punishments

    Anna Margaryan, Anahit Arakelyan
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    Abstract

    Within the framework of the present article, two core aspects pertaining to the legal nature of the punishment known as restriction of liberty have been subjected to analysis. The first aspect focuses on the classification of this measure, aiming to determine whether it should be considered a form of punishment or a distinct instrument of criminal-legal influence. The second line of inquiry seeks to examine the legal essence of this type of punishment in light of the European Convention on Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.

    Simultaneously, the study raises the issue concerning the definition of the term "restriction of liberty" and highlights certain legislative challenges associated with the application of such restrictive measures.

    As a result of the analysis - encompassing the aims attributed to both punishments and security measures, as well as the ideological foundations underlying the implementation of liberty-restricting sanctions - it is concluded that restriction of liberty may be legitimately classified as a form of punishment under criminal law. At the same time, we concluded that, within the context of the European Convention, the restriction of liberty as a punishment, in most cases, may be considered as a measure that does not amount to a deprivation of personal liberty, nevertheless, in certain cases, it is impossible to deny the hybrid nature of this type of punishment.

    References

    “Guide on Article 2 of Protocol No. 4 to the European Convention on Human Rights” updated on 31 August 2024. Timofeyev and Postupkin v. Russia, 2021, p 17.

    Hayastani Hanrapetowt'yan qreakan datavarowt'yan o'rensgirq (30.06.2021), Mias. kayq 2021.07.26-2021.08.08 P.H 28.07.2021։

    Hayastani Hanrapetowt'yan qreakan o'rensgirq., (05.05.2021), Mias. kayq 2021.05.17-2021.05.30 P.H 27.05.2021։

    https://fundamental-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=35588 (20.10.2025)։

    https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-164928 (20.10.2025)։

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    Kurganov S.I. Mery ugolovno-pravovogo haraktera // Ugolovnoe pravo. 2007. # 2. էջ 59։

    Novikova E.A. “Pravovaja priroda ogranichenija svobody” - Aktual'nye problemy rossijskogo prava. 2014. # 8 (45) avgust էջ 1699-1703:

    Shhedrin N.V. O “mnogokolejnosti” rossijskogo ugolovnogo prava // Sistemnost' v ugolovnom prave: mat.II ross. kongr. ugolovnogo prava (Moskva, 31 maja — 1 ijunja 2007 g.). M., 2007. էջ 540։

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    Statement of reasons behind the government bill amending the Criminal Code and some other acts. Parliamentary Document No. 2393, p. 9.

  • Criminal Law

    Criminal Law Issues of Norms Encouraging the Surrender of Weapons in Illicit Trafficking

    Virab Hambardzumyan, Sergey Arakelyan
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    Abstract

    Legal norms encouraging the surrender of weapons in illicit trafficking play an important role both in crime prevention and in promoting lawful behavior among citizens. In this context, it is especially important to analyze the changes introduced in recent years to the criminal legislation of the Republic of Armenia.

    Part 4 of Article 335 of the new Criminal Code of the Republic of Armenia, adopted on May 5, 2021, contains an incentive provision regarding the voluntary surrender of illegally circulating weapons, which substantially differs in content from the corresponding provision enshrined in Part 5 of Article 235 of the Criminal Code adopted on April 18, 2003.

    The purpose of this article is to examine the substantive changes that have occurred in these legal provisions and to assess their impact on criminal policy and law enforcement practice.

    In order to achieve the stated objective, the article conducts a comparative analysis of the incentive norms provided in both the former and current Criminal Codes, as well as the peculiarities of their application, while also identifying key issues and challenges that may arise in the course of law enforcement practice.

    The study was carried out using both general (interdisciplinary) and specialized methods of scientific inquiry, such as dogmatic, comparative legal, and logical analysis, as well as the method of legal modeling.

    As a result of the research conducted in the article, a number of conclusions were drawn, based on which well-founded proposals aimed at improving the incentive norm were presented.

    References

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    HH qreakan datavarut'yan orensgirq, yndunvel e' 30.06.2022t'., ojhi mej e' mtel 01.07.2022t'., HO-306-N. Gorts'um e'.

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    HH qreakan orensgirq. Yndunvel e' 05.05.2021t'., ojhi mej e' mtel 01.07.2022t'., HO-199-N. Gorts'um e'.

    Nevskii S.A. Bor'ba s nezakonnym oborotom oruzhiia. M., 2003.

    Vch'rabek datarani`Hrant Harutyunyani yev Beglar Hovhannisiani gorts'ov 2015 t'vakani dektemberi 18-i tiv EAND/0011/01/14 oroshmum.

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    "Ugolovnyi kodeks Rossiiskoi Federatsii" ot 13.06.1996 N 63-FZ (red. ot 21.04.2025) (s izm. i dop., vstup. v silu s 02.05.2025). Hasaneli e' hetevyal hghmamb: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_10699/d4f142f9078e44b70b71fc6a653a76f572bf1ae2/ (verjin mutq: 22.05.2025t'.).

  • Criminal Law

    Some Issues Concerning the Institute of Exemption from CriminalLiability Due to the Expiration of the Limitation Period

    Tigran Simonyan
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    Abstract

    The institution of exemption from criminal liability due to the expiration of the statute of limitations has been repeatedly discussed in various theoretical sources and commentaries. However, regarding many related issues, there is no unified approach in both legal theory and judicial practice.

    When examining the viewpoint that "due to the long time elapsed after the commission of a crime, the investigation becomes significantly more difficult, evidence loses its validity, and information in the memory of witnesses and victims becomes distorted or forgotten," it should be noted that with the advancement of modern information technologies—including artificial intelligence, video recording tools, new systems, and mechanisms for detecting and preserving evidence—this approach cannot withstand any criticism. Evidence of a crime can now be preserved for a very long time, which facilitates the effective conduct of legal proceedings.

    In cases involving the same crime, one individual may face long-term imprisonment, compensate for damages, and undergo numerous rehabilitation programs, while another may simply "do nothing" for a certain period and avoid criminal liability altogether.

    It has been noted that some manifestations of this institution are nothing more than instances of "prosecutorial justice," under which it is necessary to implement corresponding legislative amendments requiring that any decision to exempt a person from criminal liability must be made (approved) by a court.

    The author concluded that the institution of exemption from criminal liability due to the expiration of the statute of limitations is outdated. As criminal legislation evolves and improves, the possibility of exempting individuals from liability on these grounds should be eliminated.

    Additionally, it was pointed out that particularly problematic is Part 7 of Article 83, which states that "in this case, the statute of limitations resumes from the moment the person is detained or voluntarily surrenders." This legal provision is unjustified and, in the author's opinion, should be removed from the text of the said article. Since the statute of limitations ceases to run once a decision to initiate criminal prosecution is made, the provision on its resumption is untenable.

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    Alikperov X. Osvobozhdenie ot ugolovnoi otvetstvennosti v sviazi s istecheniem srokov davnosti // Zakonnost’. 1999, № 8, s. 13.

    Endol’tseva A.V. Osvobozhdenie ot ugolovnogo presledovaniia: ot teoreticheskikh rassuzhdenii k de lege ferenda // Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta MVD Rossii. 2016, № 6, ej 57.

    Kommentarii k Ugolovnomu kodeksu Rossiiskoi Federatsii. Pod red. A.V. Naumova. M., 1996, s. 331.

    Mal’tsev V. Osvobozhdenie ot ugolovnoi otvetstvennosti v sviazi s istecheniem srokov davnosti // Ugolovnoe pravo. 2006, № 1.

    Savel’eva V.S. Osvobozhdenie ot ugolovnoi otvetstvennosti // Ugolovnoe pravo Rossiiskoi Federatsii. Obshchaia chast’. M., 1996, s. 435–436.

    Sverchkov V.V. Osvobozhdenie ot ugolovnoi otvetstvennosti v sviazi s istecheniem srokov davnosti //

    Zhurnal rossiiskogo prava. 2000, № 2, s. 89.

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CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND CRIMINOLOGY

  • CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND CRIMINOLOGY

    The  «Function» of Criminal Prosecution

    Gevorg Baghdasaryan
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    Abstract

    The article is devoted to the essence of criminal prosecution as a criminal procedural phenomenon. The author consistently analyzes the historical development of the legislative concept of criminal prosecution, as well as the theoretical debates that have significantly influenced its formation. The discussion then focuses on the question of whether criminal prosecution can be considered as an independent procedural function.

    In particular, analyzing the procedural actions attributed to the substance of criminal prosecution in the context of the main characteristics of a criminal procedural function, the author states that these actions in fact constitute elements of other areas of procedural activity. Therefore, criminal prosecution cannot be regarded as an independent activity, its type, or direction. Then, considering this issue within the framework of the right to fair trial and proceeding from the premise that public criminal procedural activity is aimed at establishing objective truth and does not have an accusatory nature, the author also excludes that  establishing the accused’s guilt and ensuring their criminal liability may not be viewed as the mission of any participant in the proceedings.

    As a result of the analysis, the author concludes that criminal prosecution is not a procedural function, but rather a state of procedural relations formed as a result of the investigation, its organization, and the exercise of supervisory functions over it, which reflects the participation of the person suspected of committing the alleged offense in the criminal proceedings. According to the author, criminal prosecution arises from the moment a decision is made to initiate it and is not carried out as such, but continues to exist by virtue of its initiation and the absence of its termination, regardless of whether any actions aimed at proving the person's guilt were taken during that period. Moreover, it persists even when actions are undertaken to refute the accused's guilt.

    References

    Ghaziniyan G.S. K'reakan datavarut'yan patmakan ev ardi himnaharcery Hayastanum. Yerevani hamalsarani hratark'chut'yun, Yerevan, 2001.

    Al'pert S.A. Obvinenie v sovetskom ugolovnom protsesse. Khar'kov, 1974.

    Baev O.Ya. Prokuror kak sub'ekt ugolovnogo presledovaniya. Moscva, 2006,

    Daev V.G. “Obvinenie v sovetskom ugolovnom protsesse.” Pravovedenie, 1970, No. 1.

    Enikeev Z.D. “Aktual'nye voprosy ugolovnogo presledovaniya v svete sudebno-pravovoi reformy.” Pravovedenie, 1995, No. 4–5.

    Zelenetskii V.S. Funktsional'naya struktura prokurorskoi deyatel'nosti. Khar'kov, 1978.

    Kan M.P. Protsessual'nye funktsii prokurora v dosudebnykh stadiyakh ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva. Dis. ... kand. yurid. nauk. Tashkent, 1988.

    Larin A.M. Rassledovanie po ugolovnomu delu: protsessual'nye funktsii. Moscow: Yuridicheskaya literatura, 1986.

    Solov'ev A.B. “Ugolovnoe presledovanie i prokurorskii nadzor v dosudebnykh stadiyakh sudoproizvodstva.” Prokurorskaya i sledstvennaya praktika, 1997, No. 3.

    Strogovich M.S. Kurs sovetskogo ugolovnogo protsessa. v 2 t., t. 1. M. 1968.

    Strogovich M.S. Ugolovnoe presledovanie v sovetskom ugolovnom protsesse. M. 1951.

    Tadzhiev Kh.S. Prokurorskii nadzor i vedomstvennyi kontrol' za rassledovaniem prestuplenii. Tashkent, 1985.

    Tatoyan A. “Protsesual'naya funktsia ugolovnogo presledovaniya i ee sootnoshenie s rassledovaniem dela.” Petutyun yev iravunk’, 2(72), 2016.

    Ugolovno-protsessual'noe pravo Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Uchebnik. / otv. red. P.A. Lupinskaya. 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Norma, 2009.

    Khaliulin A.G. Osushchestvlenie funktsii ugolovnogo presledovaniya prokuraturoi Rossii. Kemerovo, 1997.

    Chel'tsov M.A. “Vozbuzhdenie ugolovnogo presledovaniya i protsessual'noe polozhenie sledovatelya.” Sotsialisticheskaya zakonnost', 1937, No. 3.

    Chel'tsov M.A. Sovetskii ugolovnyi protsess. M., 1951.

    El'kind P.S. Tseli i sredstva ikh dostizheniya v sovetskom ugolovno-protsessual'nom prave. Leningrad: Izd-vo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1976.

  • CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS AND CRIMINOLOGY

    Criminalistic Issues of Public Prosecution Defense

    Artur Chakhoyan
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    Abstract

    The article is devoted to the study of theoretical issues of the system of forensic science.

    In the article, the author has deeply investigated: the third section of the system of forensic science, which for many years has been traditionally called "investigation tactics", the historical aspects and current state of the tactics of public prosecution defense, as well as the current issues and development prospects of the tactics of public prosecution defense.

    For this purpose, the author has studied, discussed and analyzed the opinions and viewpoints contained in the works of both domestic and foreign criminologists-scientists on this issue.

    The need to develop forensic instructions for the effective defense of public prosecution is currently, in the author's opinion, no longer a controversial scientific issue, since it has been substantiated and is conditioned not only by the needs of theory, but also by the practice of judicial investigation.

    As a result of the research, the author has briefly presented the essence and system of the tactics of public prosecution defense in the article.

    References

    Aghayan E.B., Ardi hayereni bacatrakan bararan, Erevan, 1976, hator 2:

    Levon Ohanyan, Kriminalistika, «Tigran Mec» hratarakchutyun, Erevan, 2004:

    Yengibaryan V.G., Arandzin qnnchakan gorcoghutyunneri katarman taktika, Erevan, 2018:

    Averyanova T.B., Belkin R.S., Korukhov Yu.G., Rossiyskaya E.R., Kriminalistika: Uchebnik Dlya vuzov, Pod. Red. R.S. Belkina, М., Norma, 2006:

    Arocker L.E., Ispolzovanie dannikh kriminalistiki v sudebnom razbiratelstve ugolovnikh del, М., «Yuridicheskoe literatura», 1964:

    Baev O.Ya., Kriminalisticheskaya taktika I ygolovno-procesualniy zakon, Voronej, 1977:

    Vozgarin I.A, Obshie polojeniya metodiki passledovaniya otdelnikh vidov prestupleniy, L., 1976:

    Vorobev G.A., Planirovanie sudebnogo sledstviya, М., 1978:

    Borobev G.A., Taktika i psikhologicheskie osobennosti sudebnikh deystviy, Krasnodar, 1996:

    Gavlo V.K., Teoreticheskiw problem I praktika primeneniya metodiki rassledovaniya otdelnikh vidov prestupleniy /Pod. red. A.N. Vasileva, Tomsk, 1985:

    Grankov A.N., Ponyatie i soderjanie taktiki deyatelnosti advokada-zashitnika po ugolovnomu delu //Trudi Akademii upravleniya. Voprosi kriminalistiki i sudebnoy ekspertizi, М., 2003:

    Dulov A.V., Nesterenko P.D., Taktika Sledstvennikh Deystviy, Mn., 1971:

    Kislenko S.L., Sudebnoe sledstvie: sostoyanie I perspektivi, М., 2003:

    Korchagin A.Yu., Osnovi taktiki I metodiki sudebnogo razbiratelstva ugolovnikh del, Krasnodar, 2007:

    Komarov I.M., Obshie polojeniya taktiki podderjaniya gosudarstvennogo obvineniya v sude pervoy instancii, Hauchnie vedomosti, 2010, Vipusk 11, № 2 (73):

    Mitrichev S.P., Teoreticheskie osnovi sovetskoy kriminalistiki, М., 1965:

    Stoyanovskiy M.V., Klassifikacionniy podkhod v kriminalisticheskoy nauke i praktike (na primere kriminalisticheskoy taktikiDiss. … kand. yurid. Nauk, Voronej, 2001:

    Sukhov S.P., Teoreticheskie problem kriminalisticheskoy taktiki, Sverdlovsk, 1981:

    Ulyanov V.G., Gosudarstvennoe obvinneie v possiyskom ugolovnom sudoproizvodstve, М., 2002:

Civil Law

  • Civil Law

    Specifics of Amending and Terminating the Contract for the Provision of Tourist Services

    Armen Haykyants, Yeva Saghoyan
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    Abstract

    The article discusses the specific features of amending and terminating contracts for the provision of tourism services. In particular, by comparing the regulations enshrined in the Law of the Republic of Armenia "On Tourism" and international documents governing the sector with the provisions of the RA Civil Code regarding unilateral amendment and termination of contracts, the author concludes that, due to the fixed-term nature of such contracts and the fact that they imply one-time execution, applying the judicial procedure for unilateral amendment and termination, as provided by the Civil Code, is not appropriate in this context. Instead, the author proposes to define by law the scope of essential breaches committed by either party that may serve as grounds for termination of the contract, as well as the most typical manifestations of significant changes in circumstances. In the event such grounds arise, it is suggested to grant the interested party the right to unilaterally terminate the contract out of court by operation of law. At the same time, it is proposed to establish rules for the distribution of expenses between the parties in such cases- in particular, the reimbursement of the cost of the service for organizing the provision of tourism services. Using the example of a contract for the organization of tourism service provision, the author also addresses certain key issues related to the correlation between the institutions of unilateral contract termination and unilateral refusal to perform the contract.

    References

    «Zbosashrjutjan masin» HH orienk, HO-4-N, yndunvel e 22.12.2023t’, ozh-i mej e mtnel— 01.09.2024t’., skzbnaghbyury — miasnakan kayq 2024.01.09–2024.01.21.

    Hayastani Hanrapetutyan kaghakatsiakan orensgirk, HO-239, yndunvel e 05.05.1998 t’., ozh-i mej mtnel e — 01.01.1999 t’., RHPT 1998.08.10/17(50).

    «Sparoghnneri iravunk’neri pashtpanutyan masin» orenk, HO-197, yndunvel e 26.06.2001 t’., ozh-i mej mtnel e — 01.01.2002 t’., RHPT 2001.08.02/25(157) Hod. 580.

    Council directive 93/13/EEC of 5 April 1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts.

    Directive (EU) 2015/2302 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 “On package travel and linked travel arrangements”, amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 90/314/EEC.

    Barseghyan T.K., Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan k’aghak’atsiakan iravunk’, arajin mas, 4-rd hrat., «Tigran Mets» hrat., Yerevan, 2014.

    Carlos Torres, Javier Melgosa Arcos, Laurence Jegouzo and others, Collective Commentary about the New Package Travel Directive, ESHTE, 2020.

    Barabanova P., Grazhdansko-pravovoye regulirovaniye dogovornykh otnosheniy v sfere turizma v Rossii i Anglii, Diss., M. 2017.

    Dogovornoye pravo, Obshchaya chast’, Postateynyy kommentariy k stat’yam 420–453 Grazhdanskogo kodeksa Rossiyskoy Federatsii, pod red. A. Karapetova, Vtoroye izd., M., Logos 2020.

    Kuskov A., Sirik N., Okazaniye turisticheskikh uslug, grazhdansko-pravovoye regulirovaniye, M., Yustitsinform, 2013.

    Ryzhov R., Rastorzheniye dogovora i odnostoronniy otkaz ot yego ispolneniya. Voprosy sootnosheniya, UDK 347.43, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/rastorzhenie-dogovora-i-odnostoronniy-otkaz-ot-ego-ispolneniya-voprosy-sootnosheniya/viewer.

    Sirik N., Kuskov A., Pravovoye regulirovaniye turistskoy deyatel’nosti, M., 2018.

    Tiv EShD/1103/02/11 kaghakatsiakan gorcov HH vchrabek datarani 19.10.2012 tvakani voroshum.

    Tiv EAQD/4988/02/16 kaghakatsiakan gorcov Yerevan kaghaki @ndhanur iravasutyan datarani 27.04.2018 t’. vchiry.

    Tiv ED/19374/02/18 k’aghak’atsiakan gorcov Yerevan kaghaki @ndhanur iravasutyan datarani 02.05.2019 t’. vchiry.

    Tiv ED/14223/02/18 kaghakatsiakan gorcov Yerevan kaghaki @ndhanur iravasutyan arajin atyani datarani 26.06.2020 t’. vchiry.

    Tiv EKD/3728/02/16 kaghakatsiakan gorcov Yerevan kaghaki Kentron yev Nork-Marash varchakan shrjanneri @ndhanur iravasutyan arajin atyan datarani 14.06.2017 t’. vchiry.

    Postanovleniye Prezidiuma VAS RF ot 24.11.2009, N 9548/09.

  • Civil Law

    The specifics and development trends of internet intermediaries’ liability

    Arpine Hovhannisyan
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    Abstract

    In recent years, the issue of the liability regime of internet intermediaries has become a central topic of discussion within the European legal and policy context. A particularly pressing question has emerged as to whether online platforms should bear legal responsibility in situations where their infrastructure is used to disseminate insults, defamation, hate speech, or other forms of content violating fundamental human rights.

    This issue becomes especially pronounced when individuals whose rights have been infringed address these platforms with formal requests to remove offensive or defamatory material, yet the platforms fail to act. Such situations raise the question of two-layered (or dual) liability, which involves not only the original authors of the unlawful content but also the intermediaries who enable its publication and continued accessibility.

    The relevance of this topic increased significantly after 2016, particularly in the context of several presidential elections and the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom. These developments intensified public debates around the balance between freedom of expression and regulatory control over the information environment.

    Currently, the European Court of Human Rights has developed an almost consolidated body of case law, indicating that internet intermediaries may be held liable when they fail to take appropriate and timely measures to remove defamatory or offensive content from their platforms upon notification.

    This debate and its potential regulatory solutions are also highly relevant to the Armenian legal context, particularly in light of ongoing legislative reforms and the provisions of the Constitutional Court of Armenia’s decision of October 1 of the previous year. These developments are likely to play a decisive role in shaping the future regulatory framework for the liability of internet intermediaries in Armenia.

    References

    1. OECD. The Economic and Social Role of Internet Intermediaries. (n.d.). Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/theeconomic-and-social-role-of-internet-intermediaries_5kmh79zzs8vb-en.html

    2. European Commission. The Digital Services Act. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/digital-services-act_en

    3. Article 19. (2013). Dilemma of Liability. p. 6. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://www.article19.org/data/files/Intermediaries_ENGLISH.pdf

    4. Google. Transparency Report. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://transparencyreport.google.com/

    5. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Reports. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://unctad.org/

    6. U.S. Congress. (1996). Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act.

    7. The White House. (2020). Executive Order on Preventing Online Censorship. Retrieved August 12, 2025, from https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-preventing-online-censorship/

    8. Cadwalladr, C. (2018). The Great British Brexit Robbery: How Our Democracy Was Hijacked. The Guardian. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/07/the-great-british-brexit-robbery-hijacked-democracy

    9. Government of the United Kingdom. Online Safety Act — Explainer. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/online-safety-act-explainer/online-safety-act-explainer

    10. UK Parliament. Online Harms White Paper. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/online-harms-white-paper

    11. Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services. Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32000L0031

    12. European Court of Human Rights. Case of Delfi AS v. Estonia (Application no. 64569/09). Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-155105

    13. European Court of Human Rights. Case of Index.hu Zrt v. Hungary (Application no. 77940/17). Retrieved June 28, 2025, from https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-226196

    14. European Court of Human Rights. Case of Rolf Anders Daniel Pihl v. Sweden (Application no. 74742/14). Retrieved June 28, 2025.

    15. European Court of Human Rights. Case of Sanchez v. France (Application no. 45581/15). Retrieved July 23, 2025, from https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-224928

    16. European Court of Human Rights. Case of Alexandru Pătraşcu v. Romania. Retrieved July 28, 2025, from https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-238635

    17. Deutsche Welle. Germany Implements New Internet Hate Speech Crackdown. Retrieved July 28, 2025.

    18. The Library of Congress. Germany: Facebook Found in Violation of “Anti-Fake News” Law. Retrieved July 28, 2025.

    19. Forbes. Germany Threatens Twitter with €50 Million Fine for Failing to Tackle Illegal Content. Retrieved July 28, 2025.

    20. Légifrance. (2018). French Law No. 2018-1202 of December 22, 2018 on Combating the Manipulation of Information.Retrieved July 28, 2025.

    21. The Russian Federation. (2006). Federal Law No. 149-FZ “On Information, Information Technologies, and Information Protection” (as amended). Retrieved July 28, 2025.

    22. Meta. Community Notes and Fact-checking policy changes. The Guardian & VOA News. Retrieved August 11, 2025.

    23. Amnesty International. (2022). Myanmar: Facebook’s Systems Promoted Violence Against Rohingya; Meta Owes Reparations. Retrieved July 1, 2025.

    24. European Union. (2024). EU Artificial Intelligence Act. Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of 13 June 2024.

    25. The White House. (2025). America’s AI Action Plan.

    26. National Assembly of Armenia. Draft Law on Amendments to the Civil Code of the Republic of Armenia (Պ-456-04.03.2014-ՊԻ-010/0).

    27. Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). (2014). Armenian Bill Threatens Online Anonymity.

    28. OSCE. (2014). Legal Analysis of Draft Amendments to the Civil Code of the Republic of Armenia.

    29. Constitutional Court of Armenia. (2024). Decision No. ՍԴՈ-1752 dated 04.10.2024 on Article 1087.1(8) of the Civil Code of the Republic of Armenia.

    30. Government of Armenia. Draft laws on Amendments and Additions to the Civil Code and the Law on Mass Media.Retrieved July 28, 2025.

  • Civil Law

    Conceptual Foundations and Characteristics of the Institution of the Weaker Party in Civil Relations

    Armen Haykyants, Tariel Barseghyan
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    Abstract

    The scientific article is devoted to the analysis of the institution of the “weaker party” in civil relations. A study of foreign and international experience demonstrates that in many legal systems various mechanisms have been developed to ensure the legal protection of the weaker party, with the aim of safeguarding social justice. On a theoretical and methodological basis, the article examines the existing scholarly approaches to the legal protection of the weaker party and identifies the essential features that allow a participant to be classified as such. At the same time, it is emphasized that the scope of these features remains open and may be supplemented by new criteria derived from the principles of good faith, equality, and reasonableness.

    The article further formulates proposals for improving legal regulation, with the objective of enhancing the threshold of legal protection for the weaker party within the civil law of the Republic of Armenia․

    References

    Hovhannisyan V., Hakobyan L.S., Hakobyan L.O. Mijazgayin masnavor iravunk’: Mijazgayin iravakan pastatghteri zhoghovatsu: Us. dzernark. Er. Tigran Mets. 2005.

    Agarkov M.M. Obyazatel’stvo po sovetskomu grazhdanskomu pravu. M. 1940.

    Babakov V.A. Zashchita gosudarstva kak slaboy storony v grazhdanskikh pravootnosheniyakh // Vestnik Saratovskoy gosudarstvennoy yuridicheskoy akademii. 2015. No 2.

    Braginskiy M.I., Vitryanskiy V.V. Dogovornoye pravo. Kniga pervaya: Obshchiye polozheniya. 3-ye izd., M. 2011.

    Vavilin E.V. Mekhanizm osushchestvleniya grazhdanskikh prav i ispolneniya obyazannostey: avtoref. Diss. … d-ra yurid. nauk. M. 2009, ej 12.

    Vavilin E.V. Osushchestvleniye i zashchita sub’yektivnykh prav slaboy storony v grazhdanskom pravootnoshenii // Ros. pravosudiye. 2007. No 6. ej 31–37.

    Vavilin E.V., Volos A.A., Surovov S.B. Printsip zashchity slaboy storony v pravootnoshenii v grazhdanskom prave i grazhdanskom protsesse // Vestnik grazhdanskogo protsessa. 2016. No 6.

    Vishneva U.I. Rabotnik kak boleye slabaya storona trudovogo prava // Nauka. Obrazovaniye. Sovremennost’. Science. Education. The Present. 2025. No 2 (iyun’).

    Volos A.A. K voprosu o priznanii subyekta predprinimatel’skoy deyatel’nosti slaboy storonoy v dogovore // Yurist. 2014. No 13.

    Vishnevskiy A.A. Sovremennyye tendentsii razvitiya strukturoobrazuyushchikh institutov bankovskogo prava: sravnitelnо-pravovoye issledovaniye: Dis. … d-ra yurid. nauk. M. 2014.

    Gambarov Yu.S. Kurs grazhdanskogo prava. T. 1. Chast’ obshchaya. SPb. 1911.

    Dennis Lloyd. Ideya prava / perevod s angliyskogo M.A. Yumasheva, Yu.M. Yumashev. M. YUGONA. 2002.

    Istoriya politicheskikh i pravovykh ucheniy. Uchebnik dlya vuzov / Pod red. dokt. yurid. nauk, professora O.E. Leysta. M. “Zertsalo”. 2006.

    Lukyantsev A.A., Ponomarenko L.A. Balans interesov storon v otnosheniyakh po predostavleniyu potrebitel’skogo kredita (zayma) // Severo-kavkazskiy yuridicheskiy vestnik. 2021. No 1. ej 142–149.

    Nersesyants V.S. Filosofiya prava. Uchebnik dlya vuzov. M. NORMA. 2001.

    Pokrovskiy I.A. Spravedlivost’, usmotreniye suda i sudebnaya opeka // Vestnik prava. No 10. 1899.

    Ryzhenkov A.Ya. Printsip zashchity ekonomicheski slaboy storony v predprinimatel’skikh pravootnosheniyakh // Grazhdanskoye pravo. 2016. No 2.

    Ryauzova E.P. Slabaya storona v grazhdanskom pravootnoshenii po pravu nekotorykh zarubezhnykh gosudarstv // Vestnik Saratovskoy gosudarstvennoy yuridicheskoy akademii. No 4 (111). 2016.

    Shiktybayev T.T. Mirovozzrencheskaya sotsiologicheskaya sushchnost’ zashchity slaboy storony v deliktnykh pravootnosheniyakh // Vestnik instituta zakonodatel’stva i pravovoy informatsii RK No 2(65)-2021.

    Tsvaygert K.Ts., Ketz Kh. Vvedeniye v sravnitel’noye pravovedeniye v sfere chastnogo prava. V 2-kh tt. Tom 2. Per. s nem. M. Mezhdunarodnyye otnosheniya. 2000.

    Fayrushina A.F. K voprosu o zashchite slaboy storony v potrebitel’skikh pravootnosheniyakh // Ucheniy XXI veka. 2016. No 4-3 (17). ej 67–69.

    Cristiana Cicoria. The Protection of the Weak Contractual Party in Italy vs. United States Doctrine of Unconscionability. A Comparative Analysis // Global Jurist Advances. Germany. 2003.

    Hakan Acar, Ahmet Cemil Yildirim. The new draft for the Turkish Code of obligation: the comparative study with the UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts // Journal of Qafqaz University Turkey, Istanbul. 2008. No 24.

    Schmid W. Zur sozialen Wirklichkeit des Vertrages / Duncker and Humblot. 1983.

    Unconscionability. A Comparative Analysis // Global Jurist Advances. Germany. 2003.

    Zimmermann D. Privatrechtsvereinheitlichung in Europa: Das Common European Sales Law und seine Textstufen // Bucerius Law Journal. November 2014.

Civil Procedure

  • Civil Procedure

    General legal characteristics of mediation

    Vardush Yesayan
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    Abstract

    Improving the effectiveness of the mechanism for ensuring human rights and freedoms cannot be achieved solely through the application of imperative methods of legal regulation. Therefore, the importance of so-called “self-regulation” mechanisms is significantly increasing today. Consequently, in order to enhance the effectiveness of the protection of citizens' rights, it is necessary to ensure that the form of dispute resolution corresponds to the nature of the dispute (“Fitting the forum to the fuss”).

    Alternative dispute resolution involves a process in which a neutral third party is engaged to assist in the resolution of legal disputes through procedures such as mediation, arbitration, and others. One of the methods of alternative dispute resolution is mediation, which is actively used in many countries with developed legal systems. The parties are free to resort to mediation, where a neutral party mediator assists them in reaching a resolution.

    References

    Abolonin V.O. Zakon Germanii “O podderzhke mediatsii i drugikh form vnesudebnogo uregulirovaniya konfliktov” (MediationsG).

    Dragos, M.R., “Mediation։ an alternative way to solve conflicts in the international business environment”, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 62(2), 2012.

    European Code of Conduct for Mediators of the European Commission. 2004.

    Kalashnikova S.I. Mediatsiya v sfere grazhdanskoi yurisdiktsii, dis. … kand. yurid. nauk, Ural'skaya gosudarstvennaya yuridicheskaya akademiya, Ekaterinburg, 2010.

    Manuel européen sur la législation en matière de médiation, CEPEJ (2019)9,14 juin 2019

    Report “Alternative dispute resolution․ Mediation and conciliation”, Law Reform Commission, Ireland, https://www.lawreform.ie/_fileupload/reports/r98adr.pdf

    Sukhova N.V. Printsipy protsessa mediatsii, Vestnik Tyumenskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie i pravovye issledovaniya, No. 3, 2013.

    Surma, L., “Mediation in business. 18th International Scientific Conference on International Relations - Current Issues of World Economy and Politics” 2017 թ․, Makedon, V., Drobyazko, S., Shevtsova, H., Maslosh, O., & Kasatkina, M., “Providing security for the development of high-technology organizations”, Journal of Security and Sustainability Issues, 8(4) 2019։

    The Republic of Italy, Legislative Decree of March 4, 2010.

    The Republic of Poland, the Code of Civil Procedure.

    Uniform Mediation Act and Official Comments / Journal of Dispute Resolution. 2003․ v. 4.

    Uniform Mediation Act․ 2004, USA.

  • Civil Procedure

    Termination of Employment Contract Based on Unsa­tis­factory Results of the Probationary Period

    Mane Karapetyan
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    Abstract

    The article presents the institute of the probationary period and the peculiarities of terminating an employment contract with a person on probation, both from a substantive and procedural point of view. Reference is made to doctrinal approaches, the experience of foreign countries, and the relevant decision of the Court of Cassation.

    Proposals for legislative amendments are presented, which are aimed at clarifying and more fully regulating the institute of terminating an employment contract on the basis of a probationary period.

    In particular, it was proposed to clarify the possibility of testing the employee's human and other qualities during the probationary period and, accordingly, the employer's right not to indicate the exact reason for the termination of the contract in the dismissal order.

    References

    Bagenstos Samuel R., Employment Law and Social Equality, Michigan Law Review, Vol. 112, No. 2 (November 2013), pp. 225-273.

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