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• Articles

  Information about the culture of textile production in medieval Armenia in the works of Armenian authors

  Rafik Nahapetyan

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  Abstract

  From the Middle Ages until almost the end of the 19^th century, there was no factory industry in Armenia. Specifically, the most rudimentary form of textile industry, organized within rural families, was called “cottage industry”. The gradual development of this small-scale home production led to the emergence of crafts, meaning production by consumer order. This craft of producing fabrics was described by medieval Armenian historians with several names, including weaving/textile production, linen production, hand looming, weaving (knitting, crocheting, felting), carpet weaving, and others. In this article, it is deemed appropriate to summarize these names under one term: embroidery.

  Embroidery originated in the Neolithic period, was known as hand looming in ancient times, and later as weaving (knitting, crocheting, felting) in the Middle Ages and beyond. It is presumed to have emerged by analogy with weaving baskets from tender tree branches and mats from wild grasses. The development of embroidery was largely connected with the emergence and subsequent expansion of agriculture and animal husbandry. These supplied the necessary raw materials for textile production (hemp, flax, cotton threads, silk, hair, wool, etc.). Over time, different crafts of weaving fabrics from threads of various origins gradually became differentiated within embroidery. The production of woolen fabrics was called wool production, making fabrics from flax thread was linen production, silk thread was silk production, and so on.

  This article summarizes the diverse information known in Armenian historiography concerning the widespread embroidery culture in medieval Armenia, covering various chronological periods. It categorizes types of fabrics and cloths, presents their unique production and dyeing methods, and outlines the principles of their use in different strata of society. The information provided by Armenian chroniclers covers the 5^th-18^th centuries.

  References

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  Abrahamyan V. 1956, Arhestnerë Hayastanum IV–XVIII dd., Erevan, 290 ej:

  Agat‘angeghay, Patmut‘iwn hayots, ashkhatut‘amb G. Ter-Mkrtch‘ean ew St. Kanayeants‘i, 1909, Tp‘ghis, 491 ej:

  Anania Shirakats‘i 1979, Matenagrut‘iwn, Erevan, 398 ej:

  Arak‘elyan Babken 1958, K‘aghak‘nerë ew arhestnerë Hayastanum IX–XIII dare-rum, h. 1, Erevan, 376 ej:

  Avagyan Nazik 1983, Haykakan zhoghovrdakan tarazë, Erevan, 109 ej:

  Grigor Magistrosi T‘ght‘erë 1910, Aleksandrapol, 352 ej:

  Davt‘yan S. 1981, Dipak, Drvagner haykakan miǰnadar‘yan krknakan arvesti patmut‘yan, Erevan, 182 ej:

  Davt‘yan S. 1975, Haykakan karpet, Erevan, 67 ej:

  Eznik Koghbats‘i 1914, Yeghts aghandots, T‘iflis, 226 ej:

  Yeghishē 1957, Vasn Vardanay ew hayots paterazmin, Erevan, 224 ej:

  Evliya Ch‘elebe 1967, Ughagrut‘iwnner, T‘urkakan aghbyurner, G, targm. bnagrits‘, arrajabane ew ts‘anot‘agr. A. Kh. Safrast‘yani, Er., 346 ej:

  T‘emurch‘yan V. S. 1955, Gortsagortsut‘iwnë Hayastanum, patma-azgagrakan usumnasirut‘iwn, Erevan, 230 ej:

  Zhoghvats‘oyk‘ arakats Vardanay 1894, h. B, Vienna, 344 ej:

  Kirakos Gandzakets‘i 1961, Patmut‘iwn hayots, ashkhatasirut‘yamb Melik-Ohanch‘anyani, Erevan, 533 ej:

  Hakob Karents‘i 1903, Teghagir Verin Hayots, Vagharshapat, 75 ej:

  Ghewond Alishan 1885, Sisuan, Venetik, 481 ej:

  Ghazar P‘arpets‘i, Patmut‘iwn hayots 1907, T‘ught‘ ar Vahan Mamikonean, T‘iflis, 458 ej:

  Ghaphadaryan K. 1945, Avani erklezvyan tsatskagir arzanagrots‘ut‘iwnë, Erevan, 124 ej:

  Metsin Vardanay Barjrberdets‘i, Patmut‘iwn tiezerakan, i luys ëntsayēats‘ Mkrtich‘ Emin, 1861, Moskva, 181 ej:

  Mkhit‘ar Gosh 1951, Arakner, Erevan, 142 ej:

  Movsēs Khorenats‘i 1940, Patmut‘iwn hayots, Erevan, 368 ej:

  Movsēs Kaghankatvats‘i 1860, Patmut‘iwn Aghwanits‘ ashkharhi, Pariz, 15 ej:

  Yovhannēs kat‘oghikos Draskhanakertts‘i, Patmut‘iwn hayots 1912, T‘iflis, 198 ej:

  Nahapetyan R. 2023, Hay azgagrut‘yan aghbyurner, Erevan, 426 ej:

  Nemesios p‘ilosop‘a Emesats‘i, Hagags bnutiwn martoy 1889, Venetik, 85 ej:

  Nersēs Shnorhali 1825, T‘ught‘ endhanrakan, K. Polis, 176 ej:

  Nor bargirk‘ haykazēan lezui, hegh. G. Avetik‘ean, Kh. Siurmelēan, Mk. Avgerēan 1979–81, ht. A–B, Er., girk‘ A, 1067 ej:

  Ukhtanēs episkopos 1871, Patmut‘iwn hayots, i Vagharshapat, hatvats‘ erkrord, 116 ej:

  Patmut‘iwn ananun zruts‘agri (k‘arjēts‘eal Shapuh Bagratuni) 1971, Erevan, 238 ej:

  Patmut‘iwn Lank‘ T‘amuray ew yajuordats‘ iwrōts‘, ararēal T‘ovma vardapet Metsobets‘i 1860, Pariz, 134 ej:

  Samuel K‘ahanay Anets‘uoy grots‘ havak‘munk‘ patmagrats‘, yarrajabanov, hamematut‘yamb, yavelvats‘nerov ew ts‘anot‘agr. Arshak Ter-Mik‘ayelyan 1893, Vagharshapat, 155 ej:

  Sukiasyan A. M. 2009, Hayots lezvi homanishneri bats‘atrakan barraran, EPH hr. Er., 1242 ej:

  Step‘anos Orbelēan 1911, Patmut‘iwn nahangin Sisakan, T‘iflis, 618 ej:

  Step‘anos Tarōnats‘i Asoghkan, Patmut‘iwn tiezerakan 1885, S. Pet‘erburg, 456 ej:

  P‘avstos Buzand 1987, Patmut‘iwn hayots, targm. ew ts‘anot‘. St. Malkhasiants‘i, Erevan, V dpr. g. E, 456 ej:

  K‘yurdyan H. 1932, Vordan karmir, Venetik, 236 ej:

  Frik 1941, Banasteghts‘ut‘yunner, Erevan, 276 ej:

  Durnovo L. 1953, Armyanskaya naboyka, Moskva, 72 s.

  Manandyan A. 1954, O torgovle i gorodakh Armenii v svyazi s mirovoy torgovley drevnikh vremen (V v. do n. ery – XV v. n. ery). 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. Erevan: Izd-vo Erevanskogo un-ta, 347 s.

• Articles

  The Historical Significance of the Battle of Oshakan (August 1827)

  Alik Gharibyan, Davit Apinyan, Volodya Gasparyan

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  Abstract

  The study presents the history of the Battle of Oshakan, one of the important events of the Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828. The sudden attack of the Persians on the spiritual center of the Armenians, Echmiadzin, could have had catastrophic consequences if the Russian army general Afanasy Krasovsky had not voluntarily come to the aid of the local Christian defenders with his small forces. A bloody battle takes place near Oshakan, the presentation of the events of which formed the basis of the research article. Success against the three times superior Persian forces was ensured by the rearguard attack of the monks of Echmiadzin and wounded Russian soldiers. The Battle of Oshakan is one of the key episodes of the Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828 and a special manifestation of the Armenian-Russian fraternal military cooperation.

  The study used the methods of identifying historical facts, comparing them, identifying etymological and cause-and-effect relationships, as well as formulating conclusions.

  References

  Alaverdyants M. Ya. Graf I. F. Paskevich-Erivanskiy i ego deyatel'nost' na Kavkaze v ocherkakh armyanskogo istoriya 1782–1912 / (per. s armyansk.) SPb.: Khud.-graf. atelye i pech. M. Pivovarskogo i A. Tipografa, 1912. 27 s. s. 16.

  Balayan B.P. Diplomaticheskaya istoriya russko-iranskikh voyn i prisoyedineniya Vostochnoy Armenii k Rossii / Voskanyan V.K. Erevan: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk Armyanskoy SSR. Institut istorii, 1988. 279 s.

  Baddeley J. F. Zavoenye Kavkaza russkimi. 1720—1860 = The Russian conquest of the Caucasus (angl.) / Per. s angl. L. A. Kalashnikovy. — M. [London]: Tsentrpoligraf (Longmans, [1908]), 2011. — 351 [518] s. — ISBN 978-5-227-02749-8.

  Krasovskiy A. I. Dnevnik generala Krasovskogo 1826—1828 gg. (iz rukopisei Voenno-uchyonnogo komiteta Glavnogo Shtaba) // Pod red. V. A. Potto. Kavkaziyskiy sbornik. Tiflis: Voenno-istoricheskiy otdel Shtaba Kavk. voen. okr., 1901. T. 22.

  Nersisyan M. G. Tsenniy pervoistochnik ob Oshakanskoy bitve = Արժեքավոր սկզբնաղբյուր Օշականի ճակատամարտի մասին (armyansk.) // Istoriko-filologicheskiy zhurnal. Erevan: AN Armyanskoy SSR, 1978. № 1 (80). s. 255.

  Potto V. A. Kavkazskaya voyna v otdel'nykh ocherkakh, epizodakh, legendakh i biografiyakh: v 5 tomakh. 2-e izd. SPb.: Tip. Trenke i Fyusno, 1888. — T. 3: Persidskaya voyna 1826—1828 gg. — 748 s.

  Sobolev M. Neskol'ko dney iz moyego Zhurnala vo vremya Persidskoy kampanii // Moskovskiy telegraf. — M., 1828. — T. 21, № 9.

  Shishov A. V. Skhvatka za Kavkaz XVI—XXI veka / Gl. red. S. N. Dmitriev. M.: Veche, 2007. 480 s. s. 264. (Voyennyye tayny Rossii). ISBN 978-5-9533-2236-2.

  Shishkevich M. I. Glava 7. Persidskaya voyna 1826 goda. Yermolov i Paskevich (ocherk genshtaba general-mayora Shishkevicha M. I.) // Istoriya russkoy armii i flota / red. A. S. Grishinskogo i V. P. Nikol'skogo. M.: Obrazovaniye, 1911. T. 6. Pokoreniye Kavkaza. Persidskie i kavkazskie voyny. S. 61—69.

  Shcherbatov A. P. General-feldmarshalskiy knyaz' Paskevich. Ego zhizn' i deyatel'nost': v 7 tomakh. SPb.: Tip. R. Golike, 1890. T. 2: Avgust 1826 - oktyabr' 1827. 332 s.

  Shirokorad A. B. Voyna i mir Zakavkaz'ya za posledniye tree tysyachi let. M.: AST, 2009. 479 s. (Neizvestnye voyny). ISBN 978-5-17-059463-4.

  Tunyanyan V. G. «Zashchitnik otechestva» – Katolikos vsekh armyan Nerses Ashtaraketsi 1826—1857 / Pod red. Zh. S. Seyranyana. — Erevan: Sv. Etschmiadzin, 2007. 440 s.

  Utverzhdeniye russkogo vladychestva na Kavkaze / Sost. V. A. Potto, P. I. Averyanov, V. I. Tomkeev; pod red. V. A. Potto; pod rukov. N. N. Belyavskogo. Tiflis: Tip. Shtaba Kavk. voenn. okruga, 1906. T. 4, Ch. 1: Vremya Yermolova i Paskevicha. Persidskaya voyna 1826—1828. 320 s.

• Articles

  The maturation of the idea of ​​autonomy for Western Armenia in 1876-1878.

  Samvel Poghosyan, Emma Boyajyan

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  Abstract

  The aspirations of Western Armenians until 1876 were limited only to requests and demands for basic civil rights. However, the Balkan crisis of 1876-1878 brought about a change in Armenian political thought. The defeat of the Turks in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 created favorable conditions for Western Armenians to gain autonomy. In order to secure the future of Western Armenians, the Armenian leadership was drawing up various programs, trying to gain the favor of England, Russia, and the Sultan to make them a reality. Petitions for moderate reforms in Armenia were transformed into the idea of ​​autonomy in this period, and in some cases, the idea of ​​independence even began to be discussed.

  However, neither the Turkish, Russian, or British authorities were interested in satisfying Armenian demands, and the Treaty of San Stefano and the Treaty of Berlin did not even mention the autonomy of Armenia. The Balkan crisis of 1876-1878, the Russo-Turkish War, and the discussions of the Eastern Question with the participation of major international actors and the internationalization of the Armenian Question played an important role in the change and development of Armenian political thought. If previously the Armenian elite sought to ensure civil rights for the Armenian population in Western Armenia, in the new situation one of the main tasks was declared to be the creation of Armenian autonomy, which would lead to independence in the future. The transformation of Armenian ideological and political thinking heralded a new era, the final result of which was to be the creation of an independent Armenia.

  References

  “Anahit”, Pariz, 1907, tiv 6-9. (in Armenian)

  “Avetaber”, K. Polis, 1876, sebtemperi 26, tiv 39. (in Armenian)

  Atenagrutiunk Azgayin zh՛oghovoy, 1876-1877, K. Polis. (in Armenian)

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  Ardzruni G., Tiurkiayi mi gargadrutiun, “Mshak”, Tuflis, 1877, okostosi 1, tiv 55. (in Armenian)

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• Articles

  Principles of Structural Functionalism in Political Genesis

  Mariam Khanzadyan

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  Abstract

  Structural functionalism was one of the most influential sociological paradigms of the 20th century. At its core is the principle that political, economic, religious, and moral phenomena are functionally interconnected; that is, changes in one of these spheres inevitably lead to transformations in the others. Within this conceptual framework, the emergence of political structures is interpreted as a functional response to systemic needs: as society grows more complex, new mechanisms of regulation become necessary, resulting in the development of political institutions. While this approach made a substantial positive contribution to sociological theory, it was subsequently criticized, particularly for its inadequate explanation of processes of social change and its insufficient analysis of social conflict.

  References

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  Дюркгейм Э. О разделении общественного труда / пер. с фр. А. Б. Гофмана; прим. В. В. Сапова. – М.: Изд-во «Канон», 1996. – 432 с.

  Иванов Д. В. Парадигмы в социологии. – Омск: Изд-во ОмГУ, 2005. – 72 с.

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• Articles

  The Formation of a New Model of Governance in the Caucasus: The Caucasian Viceroyalty and the Role of Mikhail Vorontsov (1844–1845)

  Eduard Zohrabyan, Hayk Mkhoyan, Irina Badalyan

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  Abstract

  1845 played a pivotal role in the history of the Caucasian region, marking the beginning of a new stage of development. This stage was closely associated with Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov, who was appointed Viceroy of the Caucasus and Commander-in-Chief of the Separate Caucasian Corps in 1844. The decisions adopted and measures implemented during 1844-1845 laid the foundations for the formation of a new model of governance in the southern borderlands of the empire. In this context, the establishment of the Caucasian Viceroyalty can be viewed as the administrative mechanism through which the Russian Empire succeeded in overcoming the crisis of regional governance and ensuring the final integration of the Caucasus into the imperial system.

  References

  AKAK [Acts Collected by the Caucasian Archeological Commission], Volume X:

  “Letter of Nicholas I to Count Vorontsov in connection with his appointment as Viceroy of the Caucasus.”

  Part 2, No. 18679.

  Part 3, No. 300.

  pp. 125–126, No. 540.

  Arkhiv knyazya Vorontsova [Archive of Prince Vorontsov]. Moscow, 1892. Book XXXVIII, p. 385.

  PSZ RI [Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire], Series II. St. Petersburg, 1845. Vol. 20, Part I, No. 18702.

  Literature and Monographs

  Blieva, M. “Kavkazskoe namestnichestvo v seredine XIX veka: stanovlenie novoi administrativnoi strategii” [The Caucasian Viceroyalty in the Mid-19th Century: The Formation of a New Administrative Strategy]. 2003, No. 9.

  Dondukov-Korsakov, A. “Moi vospominaniya 1845–1846 gg.” [My Memoirs of 1845–1846]. Part II, Chapter VII, Starina i novizna [Old Times and New], Book 6, 1908.

  Khlynina, T., Krinko, E., and Urushadze, A. “Kavkazskoe namestnichestvo: begstvo ot imperii dlya imperii” [The Caucasian Viceroyalty: Flight from Empire for Empire]. In Rossiiskii Severnyi Kavkaz: istoricheskii opyt upravleniya i formirovaniya granits regiona [The Russian North Caucasus: Historical Experience of Governance and Formation of Regional Borders]. Rostov-on-Don: SSC RAS Publishing House, 2012.

  Munaev, V. “Deyatel’nost’ M. S. Vorontsova na Kavkaze v 1844–1854 gg.” [The Activities of M. S. Vorontsov in the Caucasus in 1844–1854]. Voprosy istorii [Questions of History], 2010, No. 10.

  Rhinelander, A.,. Prince Michael Vorontsov: Viceroy to the Tsar. Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1990.

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• Articles

  The Attitude of the Ittihadists towards Language and Education System in the Context of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire

  Regina Galustyan

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  Abstract

  The ideology of the Committee of Union and Progress, which held the political power in the Ottoman Empire in 1908-1918, was Turkism. After the coup d'etat of 1913, the party converged with the state apparatus. Endowed with enormous political power, controlling power structures, and campaigning through its branches and clubs throughout the empire the party directed all political steps toward the homogenization of the multinational, multi-religious empire. The Ittihadist discourse of language reforms, change of alphabet, and translation of the Quran had an immense impact on the formation of Turkish national identity. However, this process happened by a destruction-building formula. The language and education laws passed in 1913, and 1915, and the Association Law passed in 1909, banning native languages and unions and associations based on ethnicity, started to push the non-Turkish citizens to the periphery of the society. The attitude of the ruling party towards the language and the educational system in this pre-genocide phase shows the role (or lack thereof) that was assigned to the non-Turks of the empire from 1908 onwards, helping to understand the subsequent processes that took place in the empire as well.

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• Articles

  The Diplomatic Representation of Azerbaijan in the Republic of Armenia as a Hub of Anti-Armenian and Anti-State Activity (1919–1920)

  Hrant Virabyan

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  Abstract

  From the very beginning, from the day of its establishment in March 1919, the Azerbaijani representation in Armenia has been the center of organizing anti-state movements of the Muslim population in Armenia, and in this regard, the interstate relations of the two states have been tense. The Azerbaijani representation in Yerevan in the face of  Khan-Tekinsky and Hakhverdov and other diplomatic persons has carried out anti-Armenian activities against, which is irrefutably evidenced by the declassified telegrams exchanged by the Azerbaijani diplomatic representatives in Yerevan, Tekinsky and others, with the Azerbaijani government, which contained valuable information about the number and movements of the Armenian army, the food and economic situation, bread reserves, etc. In essence, this activity was of an espionage-subversive nature, aimed at undermining the foundations of the Armenian statehood, the annexation of part of the Armenian territories to Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijani representation in Yerevan, by carrying out destructive and conspiratorial activities against Armenia, was suggesting to its government how and by what means to weaken Armenia and harm the cause of strengthening its statehood, which the Allied British were also aware of, as a result of which at that historical and political moment it was suspended.

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• Articles

  The Distribution and Cultural Life of Armenians in the Telavi Region of Kakheti in the 1920s

  Babken Ghazaryan

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  Abstract

  The purpose of this article is to present the distribution of Armenians in the Kakheti region of Georgia and its administrative districts of Telavi and the regional center of the same name. In the article, we touch upon the socio-political and economic situation of Armenians, we have touched upon the native language, Armenian historical and cultural monuments, and the activities of educational institutions. Analyzing the policy pursued by the Georgian authorities, especially during the Soviet period, we aimed to reveal what was the reason for the increase or decrease in the number of Armenians in the given region. During the research, we have made a historical overview, presenting the reasons for the immigration of Armenians to Kakheti. In the work, we present the number of Armenians in the settlements of the Telavi region or the so-called Telavskiy uezd in Soviet times, their historical and cultural monuments, and the status of schools. It is noteworthy that, unlike today's administrative-territorial division of Georgia, in Soviet Georgia, Kakheti had two provinces (uezds): Telavi and Sghnakhi. We must state that in the early years of Soviet rule, administrative-territorial divisions in the Kakheti region were implemented on an arbitrary basis, and some of the settlements we present in the article are located in the Sghnakhi (სილაზი), Gvareli (ლარელი) and Gurjaani (გურენარაარი) regions.

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• Articles

  The Proclamation of the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic snd The Election of its Governing Bodies

  Guldana Tarpanova

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  Abstract

  The article explores the 1920 proclamation of the Kyrgyz (Kazakh) Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (KASSR) within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and the establishment of its governing bodies. It investigates the political and socio-economic factors behind autonomy, the roles of party structures, and the first elections of executive and legislative authorities. Focusing on power legitimization and interactions between republican and central institutions, the study uses archival sources and modern research. It reveals that the KASSR’s formation laid the groundwork for Kazakhstan’s political and administrative system. The proclamation and elections recognized the Kazakh people as a distinct entity within Soviet Russia, creating state institutions where congresses of Soviets made major decisions and executive power was held by elected representatives of workers, peasants, and soldiers. This research deepens understanding of Kazakhstan’s modern statehood origins and 20th-century societal shifts, offering valuable insights for educational programs on Kazakhstan’s history and nation-building during the Soviet era.

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  Korzhenevskyi K.B., National-Territorial Delimitation between Siberia and Kazakhstan, 1917–1936. PhD diss., Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Nizhnevartovsk State University”. Nizhnevartovsk, 2022, in Russian: [Корженевский К.Б. Национально-территориальное размежевание между Сибирью и Казахстаном в 1917-1936 гг. Диссертация на соискание учёной степени, Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Нижневартовский государственный университет». Нижневартовск, 2022]. Accessed August 3, 2025.

  https://diss.utmn.ru/upload/iblock/59f/Korzhenevskiy-K.B.-dissertatsiya.pdf.

  Sapargaliev M.S., The emergence of the Kazakh Soviet statehood (1917 - 1920). Almaty: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, 1948. 128, in Russian: [Сапаргалиев М.С., Возникновение Казахской Советской Государственности (1917-1920). Алматы: Издательство Академии наук Казахской ССР, 1948. 128].

  Sartayev, S., Formation and Establishment of Kazakh Soviet Statehood. Almaty: Kazakh State Publishing House, 1960. 129, in Russian: [Сартаев С,, Образование и становление Казахской Советской Государственности. Алматы: Казахское государственное издательство, 1960. 129].

  Shildebay S.K., Seytkali Mendeshev. Collection of documents and materials. Almaty: Printing service and Co, 2021. 590, in Russian: [Шилдебай С.К., Сейткали Мендешев. Сборник документов и материалов. Алматы: Полиграфия сервис и Ко, 2021. 590].

  Shildebay, S.K., Aldazhumanov K., “The Soviet Kazakh Republic establishment and formation of territorial integrity,” History of the Fatherland, No. 3 (91) (2020), 87-102, in Kazakh: [Шілдебай С.Қ., Алдажұманов Қ.С., “Кеңестік Қазақ Респуликасының құрылуы және аумақтық тұтастығының қалыптасуы,” Отан тарихы, №3 (91) (2020), 87-102]. Accessed August 1, 2025. https://otan.history.iie.kz/main/issue/view/27/28.

  Shildebay S.K., “Public, political and state activities of Seytkali Mendeshev,” Asian Journal “Steppe Panorama”, No.1 (21) (2020), 472-500, in Kazakh: [Шілдебай С.Қ., “Сейітқали Меңдешевтің қоғамдық-саяси жəне мемлекеттік қызметі,” Asian Journal “Steppe Panorama”, No.1 (21) (2020), 472-500]. Accessed August 1, 2025.

  https://ajspiie.com/index.php/history/article/view/447.

  Vilenskii E.L., et.al., Formation of the Kazakh ASSR. Collection of documents and materials. Edited by S. N. Pokrovsky. Alma-Ata: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, 1957. 369, in Russian: [Виленский Е.Л. и др., Образование Казахской АССР. Сборник документов и материалов. Под ред. С.Н. Покровского. Алма-Ата: Издательство Академии наук Казахской ССР, 1957. 369].

• Articles

  Iran–Russia military-technical cooperation during the presidency of Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani: pragmatism and balance of power

  Davit Barseghyan

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  Abstract

  The study explores the evolution of military-technical cooperation between Iran and Russia during the presidency of Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989–1997), a crucial stage in Iran’s foreign policy and defense reconstruction. It examines the political and strategic foundations of bilateral cooperation, Russia’s role in the modernization of Iran’s military potential, and Rafsanjani’s pragmatic approach toward foreign policy realignment. The analysis draws upon both open and declassified sources, incorporating political, technological, and geopolitical dimensions.

  The methodological framework combines the perspectives of political realism, dependency and interdependence theory, and constructivism. This interdisciplinary approach allows for understanding how military and economic asymmetry transformed into a pragmatic, mutually beneficial partnership while preserving regional balance of power.

  Scientific novelty lies in conceptualizing Iran–Russia military-technical cooperation as a model of pragmatic interdependence, where realist calculations intertwine with the pursuit of technological autonomy and identity politics.

   

  References

  1. Irani Islamakan Hanrapetut’yan Sahmanadrut’yun, pashtonakan t’argmanut’yun, https://missionarmenia.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Iran_constitution_9_arm.pdf:

  2. KHV gaghtnazertsvats p’astat’ught’, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000602680.pdf:

  3. AMN petdepi gaghtnazertsvats p’astat’ght’er, 2023, https://docs.rferl.org/hy-am/2023/02/02/08550000-0a00-0242-326a-08db055c3133.pdf:

  4. AMN petdepi gaghtnazertsvats p’astat’ght’er, 2023, https://docs.rferl.org/hy-am/2023/02/02/08550000-0a00-0242-9da8-08db055c2589.pdf:

  5. AMN petdepi gaghtnazertsvats p’astat’ght’er, 2023, https://docs.rferl.org/hy-am/2023/02/02/08550000-0a00-0242-a799-08db055c3054.pdf:

  6. The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), գաղտնազերծված փաստաթուղթ, https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2016-156-doc-10.pdf:

  7. Clinton Presidential Library, Summary Report on One-on-One Meeting between Presidents Clinton and Yeltsin, May 10, 1995, https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2016-156-doc-11.pdf:

  8. Makhdiyan Mokhammad Khasan, Istoriya mezhgosudarstvennykh otnosheniy Irana i Rossii (XIX – nachalo XX veka), Moskva, 2014.

  9. Minasyan S. M., Istoriya i perspektivy rossiysko-iranskogo voyenno-politicheskogo sotrudnichestva, https://arar.sci.am/Content/38552/file_0.pdf.

  10. Tsentr analiza mirovoy torgovli oruzhiyem, Analiticheskiy otchet, https://armstrade.org/files/analytics/344.pdf.

  11. Sadegi E. Mir Mokhammad, Irano-rossiyskoye sotrudnichestvo v sferakh oborony i bezopasnosti https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/irano-rossiyskoe-sotrudnichestvo-v-sferah-oborony-i-bezopasnosti.

  12. Soviet Reaction to Khomeini’s Death, Wikileaks Cable 89MOSCOW15118, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/89MOSCOW15118_a.html.

  13. Hunter, Shireen T., Iran’s Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order, Santa Barbara, Praeger, 2010.

  14. Moslem, Mehdi, Factional Politics in Post-Khomeini Iran, Syracuse University Press, 2002.

  15. Arjomand, Said Amir, After Khomeini: Iran under His Successors, Oxford University Press, 2009.

  16. Randjbar-Daemi, Siavush, Intra-State Relations in the Islamic Republic of Iran: The Presidency and the Struggle for Political Authority, Routledge, 2018.

  17. Cordesman, Anthony H., Iran’s Military Forces: 1988-1993, Washington D.C., CSIS, 1994.

  18. SIPRI Arms Transfers Database, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, https://armstransfers.sipri.org.

  19. Executive Summary of the Report of the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States, July 15, 1998, https://permanent.fdlp.gov/lps1200/BMThreat.html.

  20. Wehling, Fred, Russian Nuclear and Missile Exports to Iran, The Nonproliferation Review, 1999, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/10736709908436756.

  جعفرشیر، علی‌نیا، روایتی از زندگی و زمانه آیت‌الله اکبر هاشمی رفسنجانی (۱۳۱۳–۱۳۹۴)، تهران، ۱۳۹۵

  انی در زمان بدی بود، تاریخ ایرانیhttp://tarikhirani.ir/fa/news/5749/

• Articles

  Azerbaijan's urban planning and settlement policy in the occupied territories of Artsakh (2020-2024)

  Rema Arakelyan

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  Abstract

  The article examines Azerbaijan's urban planning and settlement policy in the occupied territories of Artsakh after the 44-day war in 2020. Following the mass deportation of the Armenian population, Azerbaijan developed plans to settle the occupied Armenian territories. The urban planning policy has several key objectives: to promote economic development and integrate the occupied territories into Azerbaijan. By constructing roads, schools, hospitals, and residential complexes, Azerbaijan seeks to strengthen its control over Artsakh, transforming it into an economically active region.

   

  References

  V Azerbaydzhane nachato stroitel'stvo avtomobil'noy dorogi v Askeran, https://ru.apa.az/infrastruktura/v-azerbaidzane-nacato-stroitelstvo-avtomobilnoi-dorogi-v-askeran-foto-video-567547.

  2. Nachinayetsya zaseleniye goroda Shusha, https://haqqin.az/news/314296.

  3. Prezident Azerbaydzhana: Masshtaby rabot, kotoryye my vypolnyayem v Karabakhe i Zangezure, ne imeyut analoga v mire, https://ru.apa.az/oficialniye-novosti/prezident-azerbaidzana-masstaby-rabot-kotorye-my-vypolnyaem-v-karabaxe-i-zangezure-ne-imeyut-analoga-v-mire-567428.

  4. Ağdam Cümə məscidinin bərpadan sonra açılışı olub, https://oxu.az/siyaset/agdam-cume-mescidinin-berpadan-sonra-acilisi-olub-yenilenib-foto.

  5. Ağdamda əmək yarmarkası olacaq, https://apa.az/sosial/agdamda-emek-yarmarkasi-olacaq-837516.

  6. Ağdam sakinlərinə ŞAD XƏBƏR - Üç kəndə köç olacaq, https://oxu.az/cemiyyet/agdam-sakinlerine-sad-xeber-uc-kende-koc-olacaq.

  7. Azərbaycan Prezidenti: Qarabağ Universitetinin yaradılması tarixi hadisədir, https://apa.az/resmi-xeber/azerbaycan-prezidenti-qarabag-universitetinin-yaradilmasi-tarixi-hadisedir-867298.

  8. Azərbaycan Prezidenti: “Müharibənin Şuşasız uğurla başa çatması mümkün deyildi”, https://oxu.az/siyaset/azerbaycan-prezidenti-muharibenin-susasiz-ugurla-basa-catmasi-mumkun-deyildi-video.

  9. Cəbrayılın Karxulu kəndinin təməli qoyulub, https://apa.az/resmi-xeber/cebrayilin-karxulu-kendinin-temeli-qoyulub-843104.

  10. Əhmədbəyli-Füzuli-Şuşa yolunun son görüntüləri, https://oxu.az/cemiyyet/ehmedbeyli-fuzuli-susa-yolunun-son-goruntuleri-fotovideo.

  11. Füzulidə daha 39 ailəyə mənzillərinin açarları təqdim olunub, https://oxu.az/siyaset/fuzulide-daha-39-aileye-menzillerinin-acarlari-teqdim-olunub-yenilenib-fotovideo.

  12. Xüsusi nümayəndə: 2026-cı ilədək Cəbrayıl, Qubadlı, Zəngilana 40 min nəfər köçürüləcək, https://azertag.az/xeber/xususi_numayende_2026_ci_iledek_cebrayil_qubadli_zengilana_40_min_nefer_kochurulecek_video-2975762.

  13. İlham Əliyev: “Bu gün Şuşanın yeni tarixi başlayır”, https://oxu.az/siyaset/ilham-eliyev-bu-gun-susanin-yeni-tarixi-baslayir-video.

  14. İlham Əliyev Zəngilan şəhərinin daxili yol-kommunikasiya şəbəkəsinin təməlini qoyub, https://oxu.az/siyaset/ilham-eliyev-zengilan-seherinin-daxili-yol-kommunikasiya-sebekesinin-temelini-qoyub.

  15. İlham Əliyev "Zəngilan" və "Şayıflı" Su Elektrik stansiyalarının açılışlarını edib, https://oxu.az/siyaset/ilham-eliyev-zengilan-ve-sayifli-su-elektrik-stansiyalarinin-acilislarini-edib.

  16. İlham Əliyev Cəbrayıl rayonunun Maşanlı kəndinin təməlini qoyub, https://oxu.az/siyaset/ilham-eliyev-cebrayil-rayonunun-masanli-kendinin-temelini-qoyub.

  17. İlham Əliyev və Mehriban Əliyeva Şuşada üçüncü yaşayış kompleksinin təməlqoyma mərasimində https://oxu.az/siyaset/ilham-eliyev-ve-mehriban-eliyeva-susada-ucuncu-yasayis-kompleksinin-temelqoyma-merasiminde-yenilenib-foto.

  18. Kəlbəcər şəhərinin 2040-cı ilədək inkişafına dair Baş planı təsdiqlənib, https://apa.az/infrastruktur/kelbecer-seherinin-2040-ci-iledek-inkisafina-dair-bas-plani-tesdiqlenib-839453.

  19. Kəlbəcərdə velosiped yolları salınacaq, https://apa.az/infrastruktur/kelbecerde-velosiped-yollari-salinacaq-839748.

  20. Kəlbəcər şəhərinin Baş Planının detalları açıqlanıb, https://apa.az/infrastruktur/kelbecer-seherinin-bas-planinin-detallari-aciqlanib-839741.

  21. Keçmiş məcburi köçkün: “Şuşaya köç etmək tarixi hadisədir”, https://oxu.az/cemiyyet/kecmis-mecburi-kockun-susaya-koc-etmek-tarixi-hadisedir.

  22. Laçına köçürülən 950-dən çox şəxsin məşğulluğu təmin olunub, https://apa.az/sosial/lacina-kocurulen-950-den-cox-sexsin-mesgullugu-temin-olunub-862299.

  23. Prezident: “Qarabağ və Şərqi Zəngəzur bölgələri dünyanın ən gözəl yerlərindən biri olacaq”, https://oxu.az/siyaset/prezident-qarabag-ve-serqi-zengezur-bolgeleri-dunyanin-en-gozel-yerlerinden-biri-olacaq-video.

  24. Prezident İlham Əliyev Cəbrayıl rayonunun Sarıcallı kəndinin təməlini qoyub, https://apa.az/resmi-xeber/prezident-ilham-eliyev-cebrayil-rayonunun-saricalli-kendinin-temelini-qoyub-843105.

  25. Prezident İlham Əliyev Şuşa sutəmizləyici qurğular kompleksinin açılışında iştirak edib, https://azertag.az/xeber/prezident_ilham_eliyev_susa_sutemizleyici_qurgular_kompleksinin_achilisinda_istirak_edib__yenilenib__video-3082982.

  26. Prezident: Laçın Beynəlxalq Hava Limanı gələn il istifadəyə veriləcək, https://apa.az/resmi xeber/prezident-lacin-beynelxalq-hava-limani-gelen-il-istifadeye-verilecek-853409.

  27. Prezident və xanımı Şuşada Mamayı məscidinin açılışında iştirak ediblər, https://oxu.az/siyaset/prezident-ve-xanimi-susada-mamayi-mescidinin-acilisinda-istirak-edibler-yenilenib-foto.

  28. Prezident İlham Əliyev Xankəndidə Qarabağ Universitetində görülən işlərlə tanış olub, https://azertag.az/xeber/prezident_ilham_eliyev_xankendide_qarabag_universitetinde_gorulen_islerle_tanis_olub___yenilenib_video-3082730.

  29. Şuşada Aşağı Gövhər Ağa məscidinin bərpadan sonra açılışı olub, https://azertag.az/xeber/susada_asagi_govher_aga_mescidinin_berpadan_sonra_achilisi_olub___yenilenib__video-3083022.

  30. Şuşa şəhərində daha 38 ailəyə mənzillərinin açarları təqdim olunub, https://azertag.az/xeber/susa_seherinde_daha_38_aileye_menzillerinin_acharlari_teqdim_olunub-3001338.

  31. Şuşada “Xarıbülbül” Festivalı və “Şuşa - İslam dünyasının mədəniyyət paytaxtı 2024” ilinin açılışı olub, Prezident İlham Əliyev və Mehriban Əliyeva tədbirdə iştirak ediblər, https://apa.az/resmi-xeber/susada-xaribulbul-festivali-ve-susa-islam-dunyasinin-medeniyyet-paytaxti-2024-ilinin-acilisi-olub-prezident-ilham-eliyev-ve-mehriban-eliyeva-tedbirde-istirak-edibler-yenilenib-3-841505.

  32. Şuşa şəhərində daha 38 ailəyə mənzillərinin açarları təqdim olunub, https://azertag.az/xeber/susa_seherinde_daha_38_aileye_menzillerinin_acharlari_teqdim_olunub-3001338.

  33. Zəngilan şəhərində ilin sonuna qədər 104 ailənin məskunlaşması ücün mənzillərin hazır olması nəzərdə tutulur, https://apa.az/sosial/zengilan-seherinde-ilin-sonuna-qeder-104-ailenin-meskunlasmasi-ucun-menzillerin-hazir-olmasi-nezerde-tutulur-855773.

  34. Zəngilan məscidinin əsaslı təmirdən sonrakı görüntüləri, https://oxu.az/siyaset/zengilan-mescidinin-esasli-temirden-sonraki-goruntuleri.

  35. Zəngilanda QHT-lərin Əməkdaşlıq Forumu keçirilir, https://apa.az/sosial/zengilanda-qht-lerin-emekdasliq-forumu-kecirilir-foto-yenilenib-850959.

• Articles

  Institutional changes in the RA political system and modern challenges

  Lusine Soghomonyan

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  Abstract

  After gaining independence in 1991, the Republic of Armenia has attempted to introduce a number of institutional changes in its system of governance. This article analyzes, discusses, and examines what kinds of reforms have been implemented and the paths they have followed. These reforms have taken place in the context of public administration, constitutional reforms, the fight against corruption, the development of foreign and domestic policies, and the need to introduce more effective tools in the social, security, economic, cultural, educational, and other sectors. In essence, these reforms have been both successful and, at the same time, in need of repeated reconsideration and revision.

  References

  1. HH ankaxut’yan hrchakagir, 1991, septemberi 21, https://www.gov.am/am/independence 24.05.2025.

  2. Qaxaqagitut'yun. Hanragit. bararan.-Yer.: Njar, 2004.

  3. Minasyan E., Hayastani Errord Hanrapetutyan patmutyun, EPH, YER., 2014.

  4. Qocharyan T., Hayastani Hanrapetutyan azgayin anvtangutyan himunqneri veraberyal dasyntaci usumnakan dzernark.-Yer., 2013.

  5. HH Sahmanadrut'yun (13.07.1995), https://www.arlis.am/documentview.aspx?docID=1, 21.05.2025.

  6. HH Vostikanut’yun, ampop teghekutyunner, elektronayin hratarakutyun https://shorturl.at/MKHsM 20.01.2025.

  7. Nerqin gortseri naxararutyuny steghcvel e 2022 tvakani dektemberi 30-in` orenqi uzhov. https://shorturl.at/Sc15F 22.05.2025:

  8. Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan karavarut’yun. karucvatq https://www.gov.am/am/structure/, 21.05.2025.

  9. Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan sahmanadrakan popoxutyunner, https://www.arlis.am/documentview.aspx?docID=102510, 21.05.2025.

  10. Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan Azgayin anvtangut’yan razmavarut’yun (25.02.2007), https://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?docID=31189, 11.04.2025.

  11. Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan Azgayin anvtangut’yan nor razmavarut’yun (06.2020), https://www.mfa.am/filemanager/security%20and%20defense/AA-Razmavarutyun-Final.pdf 15.04.2025.

  12. Azdararman miasnakan elektronayin hartak, https://azdarar.am/hy/, 24․05․2025.

  13. Mariam Margaryani qaxaqakan blogy, https://surl.lu/rkaufi, 11․03․2025.

  14. Qaxaqagitut'yun. Usumnakan dzernark.-Yer., 2014.

  15. Manukyan A., Zhamanakakic qaxaqakan gortsyntacner., Yer., 2011.

• Articles

  The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations of the Republic of Armenia and the Russian Federation in Cultural-Humanitarian Bilateral Cooperation

  Meline Petrosyan

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  Abstract

  Cultural and humanitarian cooperation between the Republic of Armenia and the Russian Federation constitutes an important dimension of bilateral relations, in the formation and development of which non-governmental organizations play a significant role. The article examines the historical and legal foundations of Armenian–Russian relations in the context of post-Soviet cooperation, with particular emphasis on the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance signed on August 29, 1997. The study analyzes the activities of non-governmental organizations operating in Armenia that are aimed at deepening cultural, educational, and humanitarian ties. Special attention is paid to the role of state humanitarian institutions of the Russian Federation, notably the Federal Agency “Rossotrudnichestvo” and the Gorchakov Public Diplomacy Foundation, as well as their cooperation with Armenian non-governmental organizations. The activities of the “Russian House” cultural center and the Russian-Armenian (Slavic) University are examined as effective instruments of Russia’s “soft power” policy. The article concludes that non-governmental organizations and educational institutions make a substantial contribution to the institutionalization, sustainable development, and strengthening of cultural and humanitarian cooperation and public ties between Armenia and Russia.

  References

  “Asbarez” Journalists’ Club https://asparez.am/about_us-h/ (Viewed 15․08․2024)

  Armenia is of interest to the West only as a tool against Russia, G. Qeryan, 09․07․2022

  Autonomous Non-Commercial Organization for the Promotion of International Cooperation "Eurasia" “Discover Russia” program

  Communication modes of post-Soviet countries/friendliness rating, National Research Institute for Communication Development, Scientific Reports series, Moscow, 2024, pp.144-145

  Communication regimes of post-Soviet countries/friendship rating, National Research Institute of Communication Development, Series "Scientific Reports", Moscow, 2024, pp. 144-145

  CorrupionsPerceptions index 2023, Transparency International anticorruption centre, 30.01.2024

  Embassy of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Armenia Rossotrudnichestvo: https://armenia.mid.ru/ru/rossiyskie_predstavitelstva/rossiyskie_predstavitelstva/rossotrudnichestvo/ (Viewed10․08․2024)

  Eurasian expert club turned ten years old, Soyuzinfo 16.05.2024

  Eurasian expert club turned ten years old, Soyuzinfo 16.05.2024

  https://arm.sputniknews.ru/20220725/mika-badaljann-azat-ardzakvec-45756039.html?_ga=2.71520145.368927066.1725429219-1696908477.1725003437 (Viewed 02․08․2024)

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  Issues related to the perspectives of Armenian-Russian cultural cooperation were discussed in the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports. 28․04․2023

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  Mika Badalyan was released, SPUTNIK Armenia, 25.07.2022

  Mika Badalyan was taken into police custody again, SPUTNIK Armenia, 29.07.2022

  Moscow cultural and business center "House of Moscow" in Yerevan

  Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation: mid.ru, https://rs.gov.ru/about-foiv/

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• Articles

  “Multilingualism” in Digital Diplomacy: Linguistic Characteristics and Socio-Political Implications

  Anna Taroyan

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  Abstract

  The rapid digitalization of diplomatic practice has transformed how states communicate, negotiate, and project influence in the global arena. This article examines the role of multilingualism as a strategic, political, and sociocultural component of digital diplomacy. While much scholarship has focused on technological innovation and communication efficiency, linguistic choices often subtle yet deeply consequential remain underexplored.

  Drawing on theoretical perspectives from sociolinguistics, communication studies, and international relations, the study analyzes how language selection shapes visibility, accessibility, legitimacy, and soft-power projection in digital environments. It further discusses the challenges posed by global language hierarchies, machine-translation reliance, and linguistic inequalities that can marginalize certain communities in international discourse.

  The paper argues that multilingualism is not merely a technical feature of digital communication but a political act embedded in power relations, cultural identity formation, and global governance. Ultimately, the article positions multilingualism as a core element of contemporary digital diplomacy and a prerequisite for equitable global communication in the digital age.

  References

  References

  1. C. Bjola & M. Holmes (eds.), Digital Diplomacy: Theory and Practice (London: Routledge, 2015); I. Manor, The Digitalization of Public Diplomacy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).

  2. J. Pamment, New Public Diplomacy in the 21st Century (London: Routledge, 2014).

  3. P. Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991); J. S. Nye, Soft Power (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004).

  4. R. Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992); M. Warschauer, Technology and Social Inclusion (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003).

  5. N. Fairclough, Critical Discourse Analysis (London: Longman, 1995); R. Wodak, The Politics of Fear (London: SAGE, 2015).

  6. J. Melissen (ed.), The New Public Diplomacy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).

  7. P. Seib, Real-Time Diplomacy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

  8. J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989).

  9. M. Castells, Communication Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

  10. C. Bjola & J. Pamment, “Digital Diplomacy and International Organisations,” The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 14, no. 1–2 (2019): 1–22.

  11. J. Kurbalija, An Introduction to Internet Governance (Geneva: DiploFoundation, 2016).

  12. R. Adler-Nissen, Stigma Management in International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

  13. M. Gillespie & A. Webb, “Diasporas and Diplomacy,” Global Media and Communication 8, no. 3 (2012): 253–272.

  14. Cull, “The Long Road to Public Diplomacy 2.0,” International Studies Review 15, no. 1 (2013): 123–139.

  15. Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. PublicAffairs.

  16. Pamment, J. (2014). New public diplomacy in the 21st century: A comparative study of policy and practice. Routledge.

  17. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford University Press.

  18. Seib, P. (2012). Real-time diplomacy: Politics and power in the social media era. Palgrave Macmillan

  19. N. Snow & P. M. Taylor (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy (London: Routledge, 2009).

• Articles

  "The Westphalian Ideology" and "The American Declaration of Independence"(Comparative Examination)

  Anna Petrosyan

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  Abstract

    The North American colonies gained independence not only through military successes, but also through the processes of national identity formation and socio-cultural development that were characteristic of the first stage of the Industrial Age. The present article aims to illustrate this approach through a comparative examination of the “Westphalian ideology” and the “US Declaration of Independence”.

    In short, we follow a research approach that sees direct connections between the American Revolution and the Westphalian ideology, emphasizing the sovereignty of a nation, its political and civil institutions, and the inalienable rights of members of the social community. The Westphalian model of international relations is noteworthy as a possible environment for the sovereign relations of nations. The founding fathers of the United States proceeded from this understanding, enriched by the achievements of the Enlightenment, from J. Locke to Montesquieu. In this light, the process of US independence is presented as a multi-vector process, which can be revealed only from the perspective of the ideological complex of its era. A comparative examination of the “Westphalian ideology” and the “U.S. Declaration of Independence” may thus serve as a key turning point in understanding the history of U.S. state formation.

   

  References

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