Vol. 14 No. 1 (38) (2023)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46991/BYSU:C/2023.14.1
Published: 2023-09-04

Full Issue

Theory of State and Law

  • Theory of State and Law

    The Concept of Filling, Eliminating Gaps int Law and Ways to Overcome Them

    Armen Asatryan
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    Abstract

    In the process of legal regulation of public relations, there are cases when individual public relations are not subject to legislative regulation, which may be due to legal gaps. The article considers the complete or partial absence of legal measures necessary to regulate public relations in the field of legal regulation.

    Moreover, due to the presence of gaps in Laws, problems arise in specifying the essence of the law and its implementation. The main means of filling the gap in the law is the publication of the missing norm, the need for which is dictated by life. If the law-making body failed to eliminate the gap, the procedure of parallel application of the law is applied. Parallelism refers to the similarity between certain tabular phenomena or objects.

    The application of judicial practice does not mean arbitrary decision of specific cases. Divination is accepted here in accordance with the principles of legality and justice.

    In jurisprudence , there are two main types of cohabitation: cohabitation by right and cohabitation by right. Based on what has been written, it can be noted that the opposition of the law is the solution of a specific legal case on the basis of such a legal norm, which is not intended for this, but for similar cases. If the competent authority resolves the case in accordance with the rulings on the norm governing such public relations, then in this case we are dealing with the opposition of the law. Judicial practice is the decision–making on a specific case based on the general principles and meaning of law. The opposition of law is applied when it is impossible to choose a similar rule of law in the absence of another. It should be noted that the combination of rights can be different. In this case, the legal case is considered (the case is regulated) on the basis of general principles and the meaning of law. This method is acceptable only if there is no similar rule of law in a given or homogeneous branch of law to regulate a particular phenomenon. At the same time, the fundamental, constitutional principles of law (equality before the law, justice, disclosure of truth, humanity and other principles) are put into effect.

    Analysis of the theory of gaps in law reveals significant terminological confusion in the use of the concepts of "remove", "fill", "overcome". In particular, V. Ya. Akimov notes that the courts have the necessary powers to fill in the gaps in the law. According to other authors (A. T. Bonner, E. S. Kemularia, V. V. Lazarev, A. S. Pigolkin, B. P. Spasov, V. N. Kartashov, etc.), only the law can really "fill" the existing legal gap. Within the framework of the domestic legal system, where "doctrine and legislation recognize as full-fledged sources of law only acts emanating from competent law-making bodies of state power and administration," only these bodies have the authority to fill in the gaps. All other state bodies "take an active part in identifying gaps, but are not entitled to eliminate them." Therefore, in the course of their activities, such bodies can only bridge the gap. One of the authors, A.T.Bonner, believes that the use of the term "filling" of legal gaps related to the activities of courts and their resolution of disputes by analogy is not correct, and based on what has been written, it can be noted that the use of the term "elimination" is not "filling" the gap" or "overcoming", allows them it is more adequate to reflect the essence of the actions carried out by regulatory authorities.

    Consequently, it can be concluded that the term "elimination of gaps" in the law reflects the essence of the activities of law-making bodies and the use of this term characterizes the activities of exclusively law-making bodies. As for the courts, these State bodies, in our opinion, fill the gap. In particular, no one disputes the fact that only a law-making body, not a law enforcement body, can finally eliminate a legal gap, and the court only temporarily fills it and for the most part applies only to one specific disputed case. For this reason, the main method of filling the gap in the law, analogy, is characterized as a one-time technique, relevant only for this case, "causal filling". The court, using well-known mechanisms for filling gaps (for example, the application of the law or the law by analogy), in some cases can only resolve a specific situation, but in no case create a precedent for making such a decision in the case. with similar circumstances.

    The article draws attention to the need to clarify the definition and use of the terms "elimination", "overcoming", "filling" legal gaps. In particular, the possibility of identifying the concepts of "eliminating the gap" and "filling the gap" should be completely excluded. In our opinion, in cases where it is not about eliminating gaps in general, but directly about the role of the judicial system in the process of filling these gaps, the term "filling the gaps" should be used. By "filling in the gaps" is meant the adoption by the competent state body (court) of a special decision on disputed legal relations, in the conditions of identifying a gap in legislation or law. The concept of "elimination of loopholes", implying their complete elimination in the system of law and law, should be recognized as the most adequate for the functions performed by the competent law-making bodies: legislative, executive, etc. The elimination of gaps is carried out through additions, while the addition is the prerogative of law-making bodies and represents the development of an insufficient rule of law.

    As for the term "bridging gaps", in our opinion, it has its own scope of application, it is the activity of competent state bodies (registration authorities, departmental committees, etc.), which often have to decide how it should be carried out in case of identification of gaps in legal regulation.

    Thus, the combination of the above concepts of "elimination", "filling", "overcoming" gaps in the unambiguous legal content of the law, as well as their concretization, in our opinion, will make it possible to more clearly identify the nature of the activities of legislative and law enforcement agencies in the process of filling and eliminating their gaps in law.

    References

    Հայաստանի Հանրապետության Սահմանադրություն, ՀՀՊՏ 2015.12.21/Հատուկ թողարկում

    Նորմատիվ իրավական ակտերի մասին օրենք, ՀՀՊՏ 2018.03.28/23(1381)

    Սահմանադրական դատարանի 2010թ. փետրվարի 5-ի ՍԴՈ-864 որոշում

    Սահմանադրական դատարանի 2010թ. սեպտեմբերի 14-ի ՍԴՈ-914 որոշում

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    Խրոպանյուկ Վ.Ն. Պետության և իրավունքի տեսություն, Երևան, Գոշ հրատ., 1997

    Խաչատրյան Ս. Պետության և իրավունքի տեսություն. Հարցեր և պատասխաններ, Երևան, Կասիա հրատ., 2012

    ՀՀ քրեական դատավարություն, Մաս 1, Հեղ. խումբ։ Գիտ. խմբ. Ա.Ղամբարյան, Երևան, 2016

    Պետրոսյան Գ. Տ., Բացերն իրավունքում և Հայաստանի Հանրապետության օրենսդրության մեջ (պատմատեսական-իրավական և գիտագործնական հետազոտություն), Երևան, Ոսկան Երևանցի հրատ., 2019

    Պետության և իրավունքի տեսություն, ուսումնական ձեռնարկ, հեղ. Խումբ՝ Ա. Ղամբարյան, Մ. Մուրադյան, Երևան, Լուս. Հրատարակչ., 2014

    Վաղարշյան Ա. Գ., Պետության և իրավունքի տեսություն-2, Դասախոսություններ, Երևան, ԵՊՀ հրատ., 2011

    Алексеев С. С., Теория права, М., Издательство БЕК, 1995

    Боннер А. Т. Законность и справедливость в правоприменительной деятельности, М., Российское право, 1992

    Власенко Н. А., Проблемы правовой неопределенности, Курс лекций., М., 2016

    Демин А. В., Нормы Налогового права, Красноярск, 2010

    Лазарев В. В., Пробелы в праве, Правоведение, 1969, № 3

    Burton S. J., Comment on ″Empty Ideas″ Positivist Analyses of Equality and Rules// The Yale Law Journal.https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/16145/57_91YaleLJ1136_1981_1982_.pdf?sequence=2/, /մուտք՝ 05.12.2022թ./

  • Theory of State and Law

    Systemic structure of legality as a fundamental principle of legal legitimacy

    Sergey Kocharyan
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    Abstract

    In the system of the universal principle of legal legitimacy, the components of the structure of legality are: the goal, sub-goals and sub-functions, the internal elements of each subsystem (principles, requirements), the implementation structure (or guarantees) of the latters. The goal of legal legitimacy is the implementation of law in the behavior of participants in public relations. The goal of legality is the positivization of the objective properties and requirements of the law, which turns into a demand presented to the self-creating bodies to posit only the objective properties of the law and adopt normative acts of a legal nature. Accordingly, the function of legality is to create conditions for the formation of legislation corresponding to the objective nature of social relations, the ideas of freedom, justice and humanism. Guarantees of the implementation of legality are a set of measures, tricks, which are designed to ensure the adoption of normative acts of a legal nature and, in necessary cases, their suspension, their invalidation and elimination after they come into force. The principle of legality is the supremacy of law, which in the stages of law formation and law-making turns into two groups of requirements for the content and procedure of law-making.

    References

    Теория государства и права. Под ред. В.М. Корельского и В.Д. Перевалова. М., Издательская группа ИНФРА . М-НОРМА, 1997,

    Альтшуллер М.Н. Системный подход к иследованию некоторых вопросов социалистиюеской законности. „Труды Горьковской вышей школы МВД СССР“, вып 6. Горький, 1976,

    Рабинович П.М. Проблемы теории законности развитого социализма. „Выщая школа“, Издъ-во при Львова, 1979,

    Комаров С.А. Общая теория государства и права. М., Юрайт, 1997,

    Теория государства и права. Под ред. Р.А. Ромашова. СПб., Издательство Р. Асланова „Юридический центр Пресс“, 2005,

    Общая теория государства и права. Академический курс в 3-х томах. Изд. 2-е. Отв. ред. М.Н. Марченко. Том 3. М., ИКД Зерцало-М, 2001,

    Теория государства и права. Под ред. Н.И. Матузова и А.В. Малько. М., Юристъ, 1999,

    Мухаев Р.Т. Теория государства и права. М., Издательство ПРИОР, 2001,

    Общая теория права и государства. Под ред. В.В. Лазарева. М., Юристъ, 2005,

    Зорькин В.Д. Верховенство права и конституционное правосудие.- В кн. Наш трудный путь

    к праву։ Материалы философско-правовых чтений памяти академика В.С. Нерсесянца. Сост. В.Г. Графский. М., Норма, 2006,

    Лившиц Р.3. О легитимности закона.- В брешуре։ Теория права, новые идеи, вып. 4-ий, М., РАН, 1995,

    Нерсесянц В.С. Философия права. М., 1997,

    Арутюнян Г.Г., Баглай М.Б. Конституционное право։ нциклопедический

    словарь. М., Норма, 2006,

    Գ.Գ․ Հարությունյան Իրավունքի գերակայության սահմանադրական երաշխիքները, Եր.։ Նժար, 2003,

Civil Law

  • Civil Law

    Navigating the Legal Landscape: An Analysis of NFTs Under Armenian Law

    Tatevik Davtyan
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    Abstract

    This article discusses the legal nature and features of non-fungible tokens (NFTs). The legislation of the Republic of Armenia does not regulate relations with irreplaceable marks. This article presents the legal status of NFTs and their possible place among the objects of civil rights defined by Article 132 of the RA Civil Code. The process of tokenization and its connection with the right of ownership is analyzed. The norms of intellectual property legislation are analyzed, and it is concluded that the buyer of NFTs representing an object of intellectual property does not automatically acquire intellectual property rights to the object: these rights can be transferred to the buyer of NFTs through smart contracts or traditional legal instruments. The possibility of implementing smart contracts in Armenia is analyzed in the absence of special regulations for smart contracts.

    References

    See Andy Ramos, “The metaverse, NFTs and IP rights: to regulate or not to regulate?”, WIPO Magazine, June 2022, [https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2022/02/article_0002.html]

    e.g., D. Chalmers, C. Fisch, R. Matthews, W. Quinn, and J. Recker, “Beyond the bubble: Will NFTs and digital proof of ownership empower creative industry entrepreneurs?” Journal of Business Venturing Insights 17 (2022), [ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2022.e00309]; K. Houser, and J. T. Holden

    “Navigating the Non-Fungible Token” (2022), [https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4055535]; Q. Wang, R. Li, Q. Wang, and S. Chen, “Non-Fungible Token (NFT): Overview, Evaluation, Opportunities and Challenges,” (2021), [ http://arxiv.org/abs/2105.07447]

    For various applications of NFTs and how they are reshaping the future of digital assets see, e.g.

    Rehman, W.; e Zainab, H.; Imran, J.; Bawany, N.Z. NFTs: Applications and challenges. In Proceedings of the 2021 22nd International Arab Conference on Information Technology (ACIT), Muscat, Oman, 2021

    Shilina, Sasha. “A comprehensive study on Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): Use cases, ecosystem, benefits & challenges.” (2022), 10.13140/RG.2.2.15324.67206; White Paper. Report from INTA Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), April 2023

    Draft law on "Development of Digital Technologies”, Պ-253-05.02.2018-ՖՎ-011/0, [http://www.parliament.am/drafts.php?sel=showdraft&DraftID=9504&Reading=0&fbclid=IwAR07Ok_a0yB1ENjT41jf2tZfXSKCsf5BcrHUq2OwHThtarK3sPvTPA9sbQQ]

    Draft law on "Digital Financial Assets", Պ-224-12.07.2019-ՖՎ-011/0, [http://www.parliament.am/drafts.php?sel=showdraft&DraftID=10671&Reading=0.]

    Danielle D’Onfro, The New Bailments, 97 Wash. L. Rev. 97 (2022) [https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wlr/vol97/iss1/6]

    Moringiello, Juliet M. and Odinet, Christopher K., The Property Law of Tokens (November 1, 2021), 74 Florida Law Review 607 (2022), U Iowa Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2021-44, Widener Law Commonwealth Research Paper, SSRN: [https://ssrn.com/abstract=3928901]; Heines, R., C. Dick, C. Pohle and R. Jung (2021): "The Tokenization of Everything: Towards a Framework for Understanding the Potentials of Tokenized Assets" (2021), PACIS 2021 Proceedings, 40. [https://aisel.aisnet.org/pacis2021/40]

    B. Baker, A. Pizzo, and Y. Su, “Non-Fungible Tokens: A Research Primer and Implications for Sport Management,” Sports Innovation Journal 3, 1–15 (2022), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357900561_NFTs_Applications_and_Challenges]

    Moringiello, Juliet M. and Odinet, Christopher K., supra note 9, at 624

    B. Baker, A. Pizzo, and Y. Su, supra note 11, at 3

    Moringiello, Juliet M. and Odinet, Christopher K, supra note 9, at 612

    Ahmad, Xiaodi, and Jayaraman, “Understanding Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): Overview, Opportunities, and Challenges”, The 49th Annual Northeast Business & Economics Association Conference, New Hampshire, 2022; at 1

    Andres Guadamuz, “Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) and copyright” WIPO Magazine, December 2021, [https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2021/04/article_0007.html]

    Ahmad, Xiaodi, and Jayaraman, Id. at 1

    Sitnik A. A. “NFT as an object of legal regulation” // Actual problems of Russian law. - 2022. - V. 17. - No. 12. P. 84–93. - DOI: 10.17803/1994–1471.2022.145.12.084–093. [Cитник А. А. NFT как объект правового регулирования // Актуальные проблемы российского права. 2022. Т. 17. № 12. С. 84–93. DOI: 10.17803/1994-1471.2022.145.12.084-093]

    See Ziwei Wang, Jiashi Gao, Xuetao Wei, “Do NFTs' Owners Really Possess their Assets? A First Look at the NFT-to-Asset Connection Fragility”, December 2022, DOI: 10.48550/arXiv.2212.11181

    Brisov, Yu. V., Pobedkin, A. A. (2022). “Legal regime of NFT (non-fungible token) in Russia: how to work in the absence of special legislative regulation?” Digital Law, 3(1), 44–66, at 51 [https://doi.org/10.38044/2686-9136-2022-3-1-44-66]. [Брисов, Ю. В., Победкин, А. А. (2022). Правовой режим NFT (non-fungible token) в России: как работать в отсутствие специального законодательного регулирования? Цифровое право, 3(1)

  • Civil Law

    The Protection of the Journalist's Sources

    Arpine Hovhannisyan
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    Abstract

    The Article is dedicated to the protection of the journalist's sources. It explores the main international tools and documents for protecting journalists' sources. Moreover, the Article observes the protection of the journalist's source from different dimensions: provision of material, requiring a journalist to testify in the court, searches of media organizations, and private homes of journalists' surveillance. Based on the international best practices and decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, the Article provides the main criteria for the protection of the journalist's sources in the Armenian legal framework.

    References

    https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Protection/Article19.pdf

    https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Protection/Article19.pdf

    https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-57974%22]}, նաև http://www.foi.am/hy/articles/item/352/

    http://www.concourt.am/armenian/decisions/common/2015/pdf/sdv-1234.pdf

    https://rm.coe.int/factsheet-on-protection-of-sources-june2018-docx/16808b3dd9

    Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Representative on Freedom of the Media, Access to information by the media in the OSCE region: trends and recommendations. Summary of preliminary results of the survey, 30 April 2007. նաև https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Protection/Article19.pdf

    Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on the protection of journalism and safety of journalists and other media actors, Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 30 April 2014 at the 1198th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies

    http://www.concourt.am/armenian/decisions/common/2015/pdf/sdv-1234.pdf:

  • Civil Law

    Termination of Employment Contract with Employees Carrying out Educational Functions

    Mane Karapetyan
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    Abstract

    In the grounds for termination of the employment contract at the initiative of the employer, the legislator also included a ground for loss of confidence in the employee, the independent basis of which is the permission of an employee performing an educational function, an action incompatible with the continuation of work. Unlike a number of other grounds for termination of an employment contract, this basis is characterized by a lack of certainty and gives rise to heterogeneous interpretations. The problem is that the legislator clearly did not regulate, by what criteria should it be determined whether this or that act is compatible with the educational function or not? This article presents the institute of termination of an employment contract at the initiative of an employer with a person performing an educational function, existing scientific approaches to it, the experience of foreign countries and the judicial practice of the Republic of Armenia.

    References

    Տե՛ս https://online.zakon.kz/document/?doc_id=38910832&pos=1210;14#pos=1210;14 (22.07.2022)

    http://cbd.minjust.gov.kg/act/view/ru-ru/1505( 22.07.2022)

    https://rulaws.ru/tk/CHAST-TRETYA/Razdel-III/Glava-13/Statya-81/ (22.07.2022)

    Общая теория государства и права : учебник / под ред. С.Ю. Наумова, А.С. Мордовца, Т.В. Касаевой. – Саратов : Саратовский социально-экономический институт (филиал) РЭУ им. Г.В. Плеханова, 2018.

  • Civil Law

    Copyright in Artificial Intelligence Generated Results

    Nune Poghosyan, Arpine Hovhannisyan
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    Abstract

    The paper discusses the possibility of protecting artificial intelligence results under copyright from the point of view of the author of the work, the conditions of protection and the rights granted as a result of protection. In modern world, artificial intelligence creates works that, if created by humans, would inevitably be considered copyrighted works and would be subject to legal protection. There is still no unified approach to the recognition of copyright to the results created by artificial intelligence, while the solution to this issue can be of theoretical and practical importance.

    In the course of the research, general philosophical and traditional-legal methods were used. The research was based on both legal sources (RA Law on Copyright and Related Rights, Berne Convention, judgements of the RA Court of Cassation and foreign courts), as well as scientific works such as published books, scientific articles, etc.

    The article raises the question of the possibility of legal protection of works created by artificial intelligence within the framework of other legal structures, including the legal regulations regarding the persons organizing the creation of the work.

    References

    Տե՛ս Abbott R. B. (2016) I Think, Therefore I invent: creative computers and the future of patent law. Boston College Law Review, Vol. 57, 1079–1126; Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2727884 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2727884

    Birdy, A. (2016). The Evolution of Authorship: Work Made by Code. The Columbia Journal of Law & The Arts, 39(3), 395–401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.7916/jla.v39i3.2078

    Bob L. T., Iglesias S. M, Ben-Tal O., Miron M. and Gómez E., 2019, Artificial Intelligence and Music: Open Questions of Copyright Law and Engineering Praxis, Arts 2019, 8(3)

    https://doi.org/10.3390/arts8030115

    Bringsjord S, Bello P, Ferrucci D, (2011) ‘Creativity, the Turing Test, and the (Better) Lovelace Test’ Minds and Machines 11(1); DOI:10.1023/A:1011206622741

    Ciolino DS (1995) Moral Rights and real obligations: a property-law framework for the protection of authors’ moral rights. Tulane L Rev 69:935–995

    Davies CR (2011) An evolutionary step in intellectual property rights—artificial intelligence and intellectual property. Computer Law and Security Review, University of Glamorgan 27:601–619

    Deltorn, Jean-Marc and Macrez, Franck (2018), Authorship in the Age of Machine learning and Artificial Intelligence. In: Sean M. O'Connor (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Music Law and Policy,Oxford University Press, 2019 (Forthcoming), Centre for International Intellectual Property Studies (CEIPI) Research Paper No. 2018-10, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3261329 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3261329

    Fetzer, J.H. (1990). What is Artificial Intelligence?.In: Artificial Intelligence: Its Scope and Limits. Studies in Cognitive Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers vol 4. Springer, pp 3-4; DoI:. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1900-6_1

    Ginsburg, J.C. (2018). People Not Machines: Authorship and What It Means in the Berne Convention. IIC 49, 131–135, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40319-018-0670-x

    House of Commons Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee, Disinformation and ‘fake news’, Eighth Report of Session 2017–19, Published on 18 February 2019 by authority of the House of Commons, available at

    Ihalainen, J. (2018). Computer creativity: artificial intelligence and copyright. Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice

    Lambert P (2017) Computer-generated works and copyright: selfies, traps, robots, AI and machine learning. EIPR 39:12–20; DOI:10.31228/osf.io/np2jd

    Lauber-Ronsberg, Hetmark A. and S., 2019. The concept of authorship and inventorship under pressure. Does artificial intelligence shift paradigms? Journal Intellectual Property law and practice 14: 570-79; DOI:10.1093/jiplp/jpz061

    Lee JA, Hilty R., and Liu KC, “Artificial Intelligence and Intellectual Property”, Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 2021, DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198870944.001.0001

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Criminal Law

  • Criminal Law

    Some questions regarding the new regulations of crimes against "sexual inviolability and sexual freedom" by the new Criminal Code of the Republic of Armenia

    Tigran Simonyan
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    Abstract

    The article is devoted to the study of a number of controversial issues related to the legal regulation of crimes against "Sexual freedom and sexual inviolability" provided by the new Criminal Code of the Republic of Armenia. Within the framework of the article, based on a comparative analysis, many problems have been identified that can negatively affect the process of qualifying crimes, disrupting the normal course of law enforcement activities. Within the framework of the article, a number of recommendations for changing the legislation are given. In particular, it was noted that the crimes of rape and sexual assault are united by the new legislation, but the risk of rape is higher than other sexual assault and the question of its separate includance remains open.

    It is stated that it is more than strange to single out “imitation of sexual intercourse” as a form of the sexual assault. Imitation of sexual intercourse is most common for children when they try to imitate sexual relations of their parents or other adults. Reference was also made to the unfortunate wording of aggravating circumstances, whereby a person who has not reached the age of 12 within the meaning of the article under discussion is no longer considered to be in a helpless state.

    The problematic elements of the wording "without the reasonable consent of the victim" are discussed. It has been recorded that the artificial introduction of conventional norms into our criminal legislation, as well as crimes provided for by the criminal legislation of foreign states, without their localization and without taking into account the peculiarities of national legislation, can have very negative consequences.

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