About the Journal

The Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes original results of fundamental and applied research of theoretical and practical significance in the field of political science, informing the domestic, regional and international political science community about the latest results of political science research. Manuscripts in all areas and methodologies of political research are welcome for consideration. The Journal is open to comparative research and especially welcomes those manuscripts that are based on interdisciplinary approaches to political science issues. The Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University is a public platform for the consolidation and structuring of the Armenian and regional political science network, ensuring the integration of Armenian and regional political science into international political science, contributing to the development of university political science education in Armenia and the region.

Announcements

Special Issue: Climate Change, Justice and Human Rights

2026-07-13

This Special Issue of the Journal of Political Science is prepared as part of the international academic and policy-oriented initiatives implemented within the framework of the Right Livelihood “Climate and Conflicts: Redress and Prevention” project, carried out by the Global Campus Caucasus in cooperation with the Global Campus Central Asia, and the Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence in European Studies: Democracy, Human Rights and Security – DeHuRiS.

Read more about Special Issue: Climate Change, Justice and Human Rights

Current Issue

Vol. 5 No. 1(13) (2026)
View Vol. 5 No. 1(13) (2026)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2026.5.13
Published: 2026-05-29

Full Issue

In this Issue

  • In this Issue

    In this Issue

    View PDF
    Abstract

    The relevance of political research is determined by significant changes occurring in the contemporary world order, particularly the transformation of the international regime of civiliarchal democratization, liberal hegemony, the protection of human rights and freedoms, nuclear non-proliferation, and so on. These transformations are occurring simultaneously with a redistribution of power centers within the international system, further exacerbating the tendency toward destabilization of international relations. By studying the mechanisms behind the formation of a new order of hard, soft, and smart power—a new nuclear order—it is possible to formulate optimal approaches to decision-making to reduce threats to international security. The current period of global politics has been marked by the increasing instrumental role of nuclear weapons both in countries’ national security agendas and in discussions within international institutions. An assessment of these processes has been reflected in political science discourses, as in recent years the nuclear factor and the role of nuclear weapons have become a cause of war and confrontation.

    References

Comparative politics

  • Comparative politics

    Reforming the EU Asylum and Visa Application Processes: Challenges and Solutions

    Stanyo Dinov
    View PDF
    Abstract

    The European Union is experiencing a period of profound uncertainty, marked by global instability, armed conflicts, diverging international approaches to human rights, and growing migration flows. Current asylum and visa systems, shaped by national interests, are failing to address these challenges. Rising migration, coupled with domestic social pressure, risks undermining the EU’s credibility in upholding its human rights obligations. With all EU Member States affected to varying degrees and facing rising costs for security, crime prevention, and social services, the conditions for a common solution are clear.
    The functioning of the EU’s asylum and visa systems highlights institutional challenges while simultaneously providing a strategic opportunity for coordinated action.
    Asylum and visa procedures face significant challenges, including fragmented rules, inconsistent standards, slow processing, and poor coordination among EU Member States. This article analyzes these challenges and proposes three interrelated policy solutions for systemic reform. In this sense, their success depends on the willingness of Member States to compromise, align national interests with EU goals, and commit to genuine cooperation.
    Even partial adoption of solutions would significantly improve the current state of affairs. Proposed solutions include: (1) harmonizing the legal framework through uniform legislation, (2) accelerating digital standardization through improved operational tools, and (3) strengthening cooperation through joint training and more efficient funding management.

    References

    Alipour, Nick, and Oliver Noyan. 2024. “Pressure to allow asylum processing in third countries mounts on Germany's Scholz.” Euractiv, June 21, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.euractiv.com/news/pressure-to-allow-asylum-processing-in-third-countries-mounts-on-germanys-scholz/.

    Council of the European Union. 2003. Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national. OJ L 50, Febriary 25, 2003, pp. 1-10. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2003/343/oj.

    Da Conceicao-Heldt, Eugénia. 2018. “European policy failure during the refugee crisis : partial empowerment, reluctant agents, a cacophony of voices, and unilateral action.” EUI RSCAS 36. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/56404.

    EDPS. 2025. Migration management: data protection is one of the last lines of defence for vulnerable individuals, May 28, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.edps.europa.eu/press-publications/press-news/press-releases/2025/migration-management-data-protection-one-last-lines-defence-vulnerable-individuals_fr?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    EUAA. 2024. Case of alleged irregularities at EUAA officially closed, March 22, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://euaa.europa.eu/news-events/case-alleged-irregularities-euaa-officially-closed.

    EUAA. 2024. EUAA statement of revenues and expenditures 2024, February 13, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.euaa.europa.eu/publications/euaa-statement-revenues-and-expenditures-2024.

    European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication. 2024. Pact on migration and asylum – Fast and efficient procedures. Publications Office of the EU. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2775/242027.

    European Communities. 1997. Convention determining the State responsible for examining applications for asylum lodged in one of the Member States of the European Communities - Dublin Convention. Official Journal C 254, August 19, 1997, pp. 1-12. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_1997_254_R_0001_01.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2011. Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 337, Decembner 20, 2011, pp. 9-26. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2011/95/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Directive 2013/32/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on common procedures for granting and withdrawing international protection (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 180, June 29, 2013, pp. 60-95. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2013/32/oj

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 180, June 29, 2013, pp. 96-116. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2013/33/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 180, June 29, 2013, pp. 31-59. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/604/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2018. Regulation (EU) 2018/1240 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 September 2018 establishing a European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) and amending Regulations (EU) No 1077/2011, (EU) No 515/2014, (EU) 2016/399, (EU) 2016/1624 and (EU) 2017/2226. PE/21/2018/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L 236, 19.9.2018, pp. 1-71. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2018/1240/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2019. Regulation (EU) 2019/1155 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 amending Regulation (EC) No 810/2009 establishing a Community Code on Visas (Visa Code). PE/29/2019/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L 188, July 12, 2019, pp. 25-54. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1155/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2023. Regulation (EU) 2024/1348 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a common procedure for international protection in the Union and repealing Directive 2013/32/EU. PE/16/2024/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union 2024/1348, May 22, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1348/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024. Regulation (EU) 2024/1358 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of biometric data in order to effectively apply Regulations (EU) 2024/1351 and (EU) 2024/1350 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Directive 2001/55/EC and to identify illegally staying third-country nationals and stateless persons and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes, amending Regulations (EU) 2018/1240 and (EU) 2019/818 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EU) No 603/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council. PE/15/2024/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/1358, May 22, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1358/oj.

    European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024. Regulation (EU) 2024/1348 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a common procedure for international protection in the Union and repealing Directive 2013/32/EU. PE/16/2024/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/1348, May 22, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1348/oj.

    European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/activities/large-scale-it-systems.

    European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice. 2024. Eurodac - Annual Report 2023 - Report, December 10, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/our-publications/eurodac-annual-report-2023-report.

    Ewfrf. 2025. Germany Sees Surge in Asylum Cases Pending Before Courts, April 16, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://ewfrf.org/en/2025/04/16/5231/.

    Human Rights Watch. 2024. “Hungary: Ukrainian refugees losing housing.” September 11, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/11/hungary-ukrainian-refugees-losing-housing.

    International Investment. 2024. Asylum in the EU in 2024: Application statistics, policy changes and forecasts, April 24, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://internationalinvestment.biz/en/analytics/5614-asylum-in-the-eu-in-2024-application-statistics-policy-changes-and-forecasts.html.

    Kohlenberger, Judith. 2024. Migration policy: EU increasingly outsources responsibility for asylum. October 15, 2024. Heinrich Böll Stiftung EU. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://eu.boell.org/en/2024/10/15/migration-policy-european-union-increasingly-outsources-responsibility-asylum.

    Liboreiro, Jorge. 2024. “EU completes reform of migration rules despite Poland and Hungary voting against.” Euronews, May 14, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/05/14/eu-completes-reform-of-migration-rules-despite-poland-and-hungary-voting-against.

    Liboreiro, Jorge. 2024. “EU completes reform of migration rules despite Poland and Hungary voting against.” Euronews, May 14, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/05/14/eu-completes-reform-of-migration-rules-despite-poland-and-hungary-voting-against.

    Liboreiro, Jorge. 2025. “EU asylum requests down by 11% in 2024, but still exceed one million.” Euronews, March 3, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/03/03/eu-asylum-requests-down-by-11-in-2024-but-still-exceed-one-million.

    Moravcsik, Andrew. 1998. The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from: Messina to Maastricht. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press.

    Riemer, Lena, Lea Rau, and Ronith Schalast. 2025. Country Report: Regular procedure: Germany. AIDA/ECRE Report, June 16, 2025. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://asylumineurope.org/reports/country/germany/asylum-procedure/procedures/regular-procedure/.

    The Times. 2024. EU votes for €2bn reform of migrant laws, April 10, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.thetimes.com/world/article/eu-asylum-seekers-first-country-migration-m9lk75gcq.

    Thielemann, Eiko R. 2003. “Between Interests and Norms: Explaining Burden‐Sharing in the European Union.” Journal of Refugee Studies 16 (3), September: 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/16.3.253.

  • Comparative politics

    The Effectiveness of Biosecurity Policy Regulation in China

    Bagrat Vardanyan
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article examines political science issues related to biological risks and biosecurity, which have acquired exceptional significance due to a number of global processes. The increasing frequency of pandemics, the rapid advancement of genetic engineering, and the potential threats posed by biological weapons underscore the relevance of this topic. In recent decades, the accelerated spread of pathogens and the resulting epidemics have become global challenges. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated society's vulnerability to biological risks, simultaneously highlighting the critical need for robust biosecurity systems. At the same time, against the backdrop of globalization and the deepening of international relations, the spread of pathogens from one region to another has become faster and more uncontrollable. Biological risks pose not only a threat to public health but can also cause economic damage, disrupt ecosystem stability, and even become a national security issue. Moreover, the unpredictable consequences of the potential use of biological weapons make this topic a subject of critical scientific and political debate. These circumstances require the development of innovative and modern approaches to the effective management and prevention of biological risks. Such approaches must integrate technological, scientific, and legal solutions aimed at ensuring biosecurity at both the global and local levels. In this regard, a comparative analysis of biological risks, their impact on public health, national security, and ecosystems, as well as modern approaches to ensuring biosecurity in China, are of particular importance.

    References

    Aleksanyan, Ashot. 2020. “Civil Society as a Phenomenon of Post-Soviet Political Life: A Threat or a Guarantor of National Security.” In: Transformation and Development: Studies in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Member States, edited by Anja Mihr, 29-49. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42775-7_3.

    Biosecurity Law of the People's Republic of China (Adopted at the 22nd Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Thirteenth National People’s Congress on October 17, 2020). Accessed August 16, 2025. http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2020-10/17/c_703568.htm.

    Cameron, Elizabeth E. 2017. “Emerging and converging global catastrophic biological risks.” Health Security 15 (4): 337-338. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2017.0043.

    Cao, Cong. 2021. “China’s evolving biosafety/biosecurity legislations.” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 8 (1), January-June: lsab020. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab020.

    Chen, Fang, Zhiqiang Zhang, Chenjun Ding, and Xiaoyan Wu. 2020. “Analysis of Global Biosafety Strategy and Recommendations to China.” Bulletin of Chinese Academy 35 (2), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.16418/j.issn.1000-3045.20200206002.

    China’s GMO Regulations Overview, USDA, 2023. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://fas.usda.gov/data/china-revised-draft-measures-labeling-agricultural-gmos-published-comments.

    Crowley, Michael, and Malcolm Dando. 2024. “Regulation of toxins and bioregulators under the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 6 (2), June: 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2024.03.003.

    Delfosse, Ernest S. 2005. “Risk and ethics in biological control.” Biological Control 35 (3), December: 319-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.09.009.

    Fuller, Thomas P. 2022. “Hazardous biological agents: risk assessment to risk control.” Safety and Health at Work 13: S81-S81.

    Huigang, Liang, Huang Cui, Zhu Xiaoli, and Yuan Zhiming. 2021. “Significance of and outlook for the Biosecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 3 (1), June: 46-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2021.06.004.

    Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://en.nhc.gov.cn/2019-03/05/c_74526.htm.

    Lindahl, Johanna Frida and Delia Grace. 2015. “The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: a review.” Infection Ecology & Epidemiology 5.

    Liu, Shu-Sheng, Asha Rao, and S. Bradleigh Vinson. 2014. “Biological Control in China: Past, present and future – An introduction to this special issue.” Biological Control (68), January: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2013.05.005.

    Min, Kaiyuan, Yi Zhang, Jiangfeng Liu et al. 2025. “China’s biosafety/biosecurity governance: evolution, challenges, and architecture design.” Frontiers of Medicine 19: 871-878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-025-1158-y.

    Qin, Qin, and Youhai Sun. 2019. “A Global Biosafety Strategy Research Framework with Specific Implications for China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 1 (2): 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2019.08.006.

    Resnik, David B. 2024. “Biosafety, biosecurity, and bioethics.” Monash Bioethics Review 42: 137-167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40592-024-00204-3.

    Sun, Tao, Jie Song, Meng Wang, Chao Zhao, and Weiwen Zhang. 2022. “Challenges and recent progress in the governance of biosecurity risks in the era of synthetic biology.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 4 (1), June: 59-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2022.02.002.

    Wang, Xiaoli. 2020. “Enhancing the National Biosecurity System in China amidst COVID-19 Epidemic.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 2 (1): 3-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2020.03.002.

    World Health Organization (WHO). 2024. Global report on infection prevention and control. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240103986.

    Wu, Guizhen. 2019. “Laboratory biosafety in China: past, present, and future.” Biosafety and Health 1 (2), September: 56-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsheal.2019.10.003.

    Xu, Zonghuang, and Jin Shi. 2025. “Research on the national security risk assessment model: a case study of political security in China.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 12, 906. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05278-w.

    Yassif, Jaime M. 2017. “Reducing Global Catastrophic Biological Risks.” Health Security 15 (4): 329-330. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2017.0049.

    Yassif, Jaime M., Shayna Korol, and Angela Kane. 2023. “Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.” Health Security 21 (4): 258-265. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2022.0145.

    Zhang, Yu, Jia Lu, Fang Zhang et al. 2023. “Biosafety management in high-biosafety-risk workshops for vaccine production in China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 5 (4), December: 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2023.11.002.

Regional Policy

  • Regional Policy

    Restructuring and its Nexus with National Security and Development Management in Nigeria: An African Policy

    Jibrin Ubale Yahaya
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article analyzes the fundamental conditions governing national security and development management in Nigeria. In this regard, it takes into account the specifics of Nigeria's political history during the colonial era and the unification of the Northern and Southern Protectorates. This paper attempts to determine whether current calls for restructuring in Nigeria, despite the objections of some groups, will provide a bright future for the country. Restructuring is examined in terms of granting states greater power than the federal government, as well as in terms of resource control and the creation of state police forces.
    Nigeria's security is challenged on a number of fronts, including the inability to feed itself, ensure economic growth and decent living conditions for the majority of the population, and protect itself from external aggression and internal conflict. All of this is exacerbated by an underdeveloped scientific and technological base, as well as inadequate governance. Despite the country's abundant natural resources, they are either underutilized or under the control of international economic entities that are primarily concerned with their own financial well-being rather than the well-being of local residents. Globalization brings with it problems such as the illegal exploitation of human and natural resources, unrestrained by any international norms, the infiltration and active operation of international organized crime groups, amidst weak legal protections for citizens and pervasive corruption, which also poses one of the main threats to Nigeria's national security.
    The article concludes that modern Nigeria is in dire need of patriotic leaders who could strategically lead the country toward sustainable development.

    References

    Adeakin, Ibikunle, and Simon Gray. 2019. “Nigeria’s Shi’a Islamic Movement and Evolving Islamist Threat Landscape: Old, New and Future Generators of Radicalization.” African Security 12 (2): 174-199.

    Aiyede, E. Remi. 2013. “Elite Competition, Institutional Change, and Political Responsibility.” In: Democracy and Prebendalism in Nigeria: Critical Interpretations, edited by Wale Adebanwi, and Ebenezer Obadare, 103-120. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137280770_5.

    Akanji, Olajide O. 2011. “‘The Problem of Belonging’: The Identity Question and the Dilemma of Nation-Building in Nigeria.” African Identities 9 (2): 117–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2011.556788.

    Amaechi, Chidi M., and Obinna U. Muoh, 2017. “Constitution Building as a Panacea to Identity Conflicts in Africa: The Case of Nigeria.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 8 (4): 17-26.

    Amali, Sadiq Ewaoda, and M. W. Buthelezi. 2025. “Managing the proliferation of small arms and light weapons for Nigeria’s national security.” Discover Global Society 3, 28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-025-00166-9.

    Botha, Sven. 2021. “The Women and Girls Associated with Boko Haram: How Has the Nigerian Government Responded?” South African Journal of International Affairs 28 (2): 263-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2021.1927167.

    Egwim, Ambrose Ihekwoaba. 2026. “7: Nigerian federalism: political economy, petroleum, and state fragility.” In: Federalism in a Turbulent Era, edited by Nicholas Aroney, and Renato Costa, 152-176. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035321582.00013.

    Fagbadebo, Omololu. 2025. “Institutions and the Crisis of Governance in Nigeria.” In: Political Governance and the African Peer Review Mechanism: A Comparative Analysis, edited by Omololu Fagbadebo, and Isioma U. Ile, 247-261. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-85911-3_13.

    Faluyi, Olumuyiwa Temitope. 2023a. Federalism and Plurality Unpacked. In: National Integration and Rotational Presidency in Nigeria. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 29-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41241-7_2.

    Faluyi, Olumuyiwa Temitope. 2023b. National Integration in Perspective. In: National Integration and Rotational Presidency in Nigeria. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 67-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41241-7_3.

    Fashagba, Joseph Olayinka. 2015. “Subnational Legislatures and National Governing Institutions in Nigeria, 1999-2013.” In: African State Governance: Subnational Politics and National Power, edited by A. Carl LeVan, Joseph Olayinka Fashagba, and Edward R. McMahon, 93–119. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137523341_4.

    Hassan, Idayat, and Benson Chinedu Olugbuo. 2016. “Boko Haram’s Insurgency in Nigeria: Exploring the Justice, Peace and Reconciliation Pathways.” In: The International Criminal Court and Africa: One Decade On, edited by Evelyn A. Ankumah, 419-432. Intersentia.

    Ikpebe, Ene, Emily Boykin, Alex Osei-Kojo, and Bukola Usidame Peters. 2026. “An advocacy coalition framework analysis of local government autonomy in Nigeria.” Policy Sciences 59, 417-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-026-09608-w.

    Mariotti, Sergio, and Sergio Meacci. 2026. “Africa in the global economy: development challenges and investment opportunities for Europe.” Journal of Industrial and Business Economics 53: 115–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40812-025-00377-w.

    Momoh, Abubakar, and Said Adejumobi. 2017. The National Question in Nigeria: Comparative Perspectives. Routledge.

    Onapajo, Hakeem. 2026. “Child Soldiers of Boko Haram: Why (and How) Children Join Armed Groups in Northeastern Nigeria.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 61(2): 1686-1702. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251318237.

    Onwudiwe, Ebere. 1999, “On the Sovereign National Conference.” A Journal of Opinion 27 (1): 66-68. https://doi.org/10.2307/1167010.

    Pally, Agidi Ejime. 2021. “Restructuring, National Security and Nigeria’s Relationship With the External World”. UJAH: Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities 21 (4): 34-52. https://doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v21i4.2.

    Sule, Babayo, Usman Sambo, Abdulkadir Ahmed, and Muhammad Yusuf. 2021. “Nigerian Civil Society Situation Room (NCSSR) and Electioneering Process in Nigeria (2015–2019).” Sage Open 11 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211006708.

    Titus, Utibe Monday, and Ilufoye Sarafa Ogundiya. 2025. “The National Question and Nigeria’s Ethnic and Identity Crises.” African Identities 23 (2): 415-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2023.2265574.

    Uzoagba, Chidiebele E. J., Edmund Chijioke Okoroigwe, and Azikiwe Peter Onwualu. 2026. “Sustainable engineering solutions for achieving resilient food security in Nigeria.” Discover Agriculture 4, 103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00385-3.

    Vinson, Laura Thaut. 2017. “Tenuous Unity: Federalism, Local Governments, and Politics in Nigeria.” Chapter. In Religion, Violence, and Local Power-Sharing in Nigeria, 41-83. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Regional Policy

    Towards an African Solution-Oriented Approach to Conflict Analysis in African Peace and Security (2002-2022)

    Abraham Ename Minko
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This paper proposes an AfSol-oriented (African Solutions) approach to conflict analysis in Africa's peace and security sphere, focusing on the period between 2002 and 2022. As Africa grapples with numerous internal and external challenges to peace and stability, it becomes imperative to examine the roles, perspectives, and interactions of all stakeholders involved in resolving conflicts across the continent. An AfSol-oriented approach calls for a shift from externally driven solutions to locally led, context-specific initiatives that promote sustainable peace and security. The study identifies the key stakeholders involved in Africa’s peace and security processes, including regional organizations, national governments, non-state actors, civil society, and international partners. By examining their respective roles, motivations, and capabilities, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate web of interactions among these actors. Furthermore, the paper highlights the importance of promoting inclusivity and local ownership in conflict resolution strategies. It argues that genuine and lasting peace can only be achieved when the affected communities actively participate in shaping the solutions to their problems. The AfSol-oriented approach emphasizes the need to prioritize local knowledge, cultural practices, and traditional conflict resolution mechanisms, while also complementing them with modern strategies and international support.

    References

    Abegunrin, Olayiwola. 2009. From Organization of African Unity to African Union. In: Africa in Global Politics in the Twenty-First Century: A Pan-African Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 141-172. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230623903_8.

    Abrahamsen, Rita. 2013. “Introduction: Conflict & Security in Africa.” In: Conflict and Security in Africa, edited by Rita Abrahamsen, 1-12. ROAPE African Readers. Boydell & Brewer.

    Adams, Adeola, and Chux Gervase Iwu. 2015. “Conflict resolution: Understanding concepts and issues in conflict prevention, management, and transformation.” Corporate Ownership and Control 12 (4-4): 431-439. https://doi.org/10.22495/cocv12i4c4p1.

    Addison, Tony. 2001. “Reconstruction from War in Africa: Communities, Entrepreneurs, and States,” WIDER Working Paper Series DP2001-18. Accessed April 13, 2026. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2528145.

    Adekanye, J. ’Bayo. 2007. Linking Conflict Diagnosis, Conflict Prevention, and Conflict Management in Contemporary Africa: Selected Essays. Lagos, Nigeria, Ibadan: Ababa Press Ltd.; Centre for Gender, Governance and Development.

    Adem, Seifudein. 2004. “Cultures of Political Recycling and Conflict Resolution in Japan: Any Lessons for Africa?” African and Asian Studies 3 (1): 3-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15692108-00301002

    Akiba, Okon. 2020. Making and Enforcing Peace Through Mediation and Fire Power: A Retrospective on the Liberia Experience. In: Preventive Diplomacy, Security, and Human Rights in West Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 175-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25354-7_6.

    Akinola, Adeoye O., and Ufo Okeke Uzodike. 2017. “Ubuntu and the Quest for Conflict Resolution in Africa.” Journal of Black Studies 49 (2): 91-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021934717736186

    Amaglo-Mensah, Timothy Dziedzom, and Yulia Nesterova. 2025. “Searching for peace and nonviolence in the national curriculum of Ghana.” Prospects. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-025-09747-7.

    Amoah, Michael. 2025. Decolonizing Collaboration: Africa’s South-South Collaborations. In: Decolonizing African Politics: Bridging the Contours of Debate. Springer, Cham, pp. 117-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89218-9_8.

    Anyang' Nyong'o, Peter. 1998. “Governance, Security and Conflict Resolution in Africa.” Diogenes 46 (184): 129-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/039219219804618413

    Apuuli, Kasaija Phillip. 2020. “The African Union and Peacekeeping in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.” Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 20 (4): 667-677. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2020-20-4-667-677

    Baker, Pauline H. 2009. “Review of Identity, Diversity, and Constitutionalism in Africa.” Human Rights Quarterly 31 (4): 1139-1143. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hrq.0.0101.

    Brewer, Cecily G. 2011. “Peril by Proxy: Negotiating Conflicts in East Africa.” International Negotiation 16 (1): 137-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180611x553908

    Ceesay, Almamo, and Sulikah Asmorowati. 2026. “Beyond the Peace Agreement: Institutional Weakness and Governance Challenges in Post-Conflict South Sudan.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 61(4): 3406-3423. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251376658.

    Chekol, Yayew Genet, and Taye Demissie Beshi. 2026. “Internal Geopolitical Drivers of Non-state Armed Group Formation in Africa.” Society. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-026-01201-4.

    Cho, Jacqui. 2025. “Making Peace by Fighting War: Competing Visions of Conflict Management and African Agency in the ‘New Scramble for Africa.’” Contemporary Security Policy 46 (3): 522-550. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2025.2500262.

    Dosch, Jörn, and Pamina Becker. 2025. Development Cooperation and Good Governance: Setting the Stage. In: Development Cooperation and Good Governance. Contributions to Political Science. Springer, Wiesbaden, pp. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-49961-7_1.

    Dube, Beatrice, and Sinenhlanhla S. Chisale. 2023. “Decolonising Peacebuilding for Development in South Africa: African Traditional Spiritual Leaders as Critical Assets.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Religion, Peacebuilding, and Development in Africa, edited by Susan M. Kilonzo, Ezra Chitando, and Joram Tarusarira, 435-453. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36829-5_25.

    Dygas, Robert. 2025. The Wars and Conflicts in the Global World Shaping the New World Order. In: The Great Convergence and the World System Reconfiguration: Toward a New World Order. Springer, Cham, pp. 25-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-95830-4_3.

    Ebegbulem, Joseph C. 2011. “Nigeria and Conflict Resolution in Africa: The Darfur Experience.” Civilizar 11 (21): 69-76. https://doi.org/10.22518/16578953.34.

    Engel, Ulf. 2023. “African Union Non-Military Conflict Interventions.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Diplomatic Thought and Practice in the Digital Age, edited by Francis Onditi, Katharina McLarren, Gilad Ben-Nun, Yannis A. Stivachtis, and Pontian Okoth, 313-331. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28214-0_14.

    Fabo, Camille. 2026. “Educational Programs of International Organizations in Conflict-Affected Cameroon and Nigeria: Band-Aids or Problem Solvers?” In: The Geopolitics of Education in Conflict-Affected Contexts: Understanding International Assistance and Intervention, edited by Mario Novelli, 59-86. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-18260-9_3.

    Fisher, Ronald J., Herbert C. Kelman, and Susan Allen Nan. 2013. “Conflict Analysis and Resolution.” In: The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, edited by Leonie Huddy, David O. Sears, and Jack S. Levy, 489-521. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199760107.013.0016.

    Frimpong, Isaac Owusu. 2025. Africa’s Contemporary Strategic and Security Environment. In: China’s Emerging Security Diplomacy in Africa. Springer, Singapore, pp. 77-102. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4364-6_4.

    Hammed, Hanafi A. 2015. “Appraising the Role of African Union: the New Partnership for Africa’s Development in Conflict prevention and Management in Africa.” International and Comparative Law Review 15 (2): 69-88. https://doi.org/10.1515/iclr-2016-0036.

    Hofisi, Costa, Bobby J. Moroe, and Nicholas Idris Erameh. 2025. “Consolidating Peace and Security in Africa: South Africa’s Role in Institutionalizing the Silencing the Guns Agenda.” In: Silencing the Guns Volume I: Reflecting on the Theory and Practice of the Silencing the Guns Agenda in Africa, edited by Nicholas Idris Erameh, Joshua Olusegun Bolarinwa, and Ikenna Mike Alumona, 347-364. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-7078-9_18.

    Jackson, Richard. 2001. “Conflict Resolution in Africa: Intervention, Indifference, and Indigenous Solutions.” African Affairs 100 (399): 321-328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/100.399.321

    Jeong, Ho-Won. 2008. Understanding Conflict and Conflict Analysis. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446279366.

    Kabia, John M. 2009. Humanitarian Intervention and Conflict Resolution in West Africa: From ECOMOG to ECOMIL. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315587592.

    Kadende-Kaiser, Rose M., and Paul J. Kaiser. 2003. “Phases of Conflict in Africa.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 38 (2-3): 150-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/002190960303800201.

    Kanzian, Christian and Edmund Runggaldier SJ. 2007. Cultures. Conflict - Analysis - Dialogue: Proceedings of the 29th International Ludwig Wittgenstein-Symposium in Kirchberg, Austria. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110328936.

    Khadiagala, Gilbert M. 2021. “The African Union in Peacebuilding in Africa.” In: The State of Peacebuilding in Africa: Lessons Learned for Policymakers and Practitioners, edited by Terence McNamee, and Monde Muyangwa, 197-213. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46636-7_12.

    Kostelyanets, Sergey V. 2023. “The African Union—United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID): Mission Accomplished?” In: Africa and the Formation of the New System of International Relations—Vol. II: Beyond Summit Diplomacy: Cooperation with Africa in the Post-pandemic World, edited by Alexey M. Vasiliev, Denis A. Degterev, and Timothy M. Shaw, 301-315. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34041-3_19.

    Kuperman, Alan J. 2015. “10. Rethinking Constitutional Reform for Democracy and Stability.” In: Constitutions and Conflict Management in Africa: Preventing Civil War Through Institutional Design, edited by Alan J. Kuperman, 226-236. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812290332-010.

    Mdhluli, Kurisani. 2025. “Peace and Security in SADC: Understanding the Circumstances Surrounding South Africa’s Participation in SAMIM.” In: Expanded BRICS Nations: Peace, Security, Global Economy and Sustainable Development, edited by Jean Chrysostome K. Kiyala, Ndivhuho Tshikovhi, Dumisani Maqeda Ngwenya, and Fulufhelo Netswera, 299-317. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-6986-8_16.

    Mlambo, Victor H., Ernest Toochi Aniche, and Mandla Mfundo Masuku. 2024. “Managing Conflict in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities for the African Union.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Violence in Africa, edited by Obert Bernard Mlambo, and Ezra Chitando, 1051-1070. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40754-3_51.

    Munyao, Martin, Jackson Manthi, and Lorna Ndirangu. 2025. “Peace and Conflict Studies in Africa: Trends and Emerging Themes.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Peace, Conflict and Security Studies in Africa, edited by Elias O. Opongo, David Kaulem, Susan M. Kilonzo, Sarah Njeri, 39-60. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92924-3_3.

    Nimbalkar, Namita. 2026. “Walking for Peace and Harmony: Mahatma Gandhi’s Noakhali Pilgrimage.” In: Conflict Resolution in the Twenty-First Century: Ethical and Psychological Dimensions of Gandhi’s Creative Non-Violence, edited by Sanjeev Kumar, 191-202. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-7734-7_13.

    Núñez, Jorge E. 2024. “State Sovereignty: Concept and Conceptions.” International Journal for the Semiotics of Law 37: 2131-2150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-024-10170-y.

    Ojakorotu, Victor, and Adewole Ayodeji Adeleke. 2018. “Nigeria and Conflict Resolution in the Sub-regional West Africa: The Quest for a Regional Hegemon?” Insight on Africa 10(1): 37-53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0975087817735386.

    Onyango Ouma, Stephen. 2026. Reclaiming Africa: From Manifesto to Policy Action. In: Reclaiming Africa's Future: The Philosophical Interplay of Traditional Values, Colonial Histories, and Economic Evolution. Springer, Cham, pp. 203-227. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-19068-0_9.

    Oshota, Sebil Olalekan, and Bashir Adelowo Wahab. 2022. “Institutional Quality and Intra-Regional Trade Flows: Evidence from ECOWAS.” Journal of African Trade 9: 73-106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44232-022-00005-9.

    Rasool, Yasir, Zhao Chen, and Umair Kashif. 2026. “Asymmetric impacts of natural resource, population density, energy intensity, and government effectiveness on ecological footprints: insights from ECOWAS economies.” Environment, Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-025-07144-w.

    Rushton, Amy. 2024. Reading Africa in the Neoliberal World-System. In: Re-Reading Tragic Africa: Development, Neoliberalism and Contemporary Fiction. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 33-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50955-1_2.

    Sauti, Lazarus, and Tendai Makaripe. 2024. “Mediating Peace or Escalating Violence? Examining newafricanmagazine.com’s Representation of Violent Conflicts in Africa.” In: Engagement of Africa in Conflict Dynamics and Peace Architectures, edited by Stanley Osezua Ehiane, Lukong Stella Shulika, and Clayton Hazvinei Vhumbunu, 351-371. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8235-6_17.

    Sello, Nelson C. K. 2026. “Strategic Partnerships That Promote Peace and Stability in Africa.” In: Promoting Good Governance in the Contemporary South African Military: Issues, Challenges and Prospects, edited by Moses B. Khanyile, 209-233. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-14983-1_9.

    Smith, Karen, and Faith Mabera. 2024. “The Search for Global-Regional Power: South Africa in Africa and the World.” In: Diplomatic Strategies of Rising Nations in the Global South: The Search for Leadership and Influence, edited by Jacqueline Anne Braveboy-Wagner, 133-155. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52629-9_5.

    Ujunwa, Augustine, Chinwe Okoyeuzu, and Ebere Ume Kalu. 2019. “Armed Conflict and Food Security in West Africa: Socioeconomic Perspective.” International Journal of Social Economics 46 (2): 182-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-11-2017-0538.

    Uzoigwe, Michael, and Ndubuisi Nwokolo. 2025. “Natural Resource Conflicts and Good Governance in West Africa.” In: Media, Conflicts and the National Security Question: Communicating (In)security in Nigeria, West Africa and the Sahel, edited by Abiodun Adeniyi, Paul A. Obi, Sani K. Usman, and Ibrahim U. Yusuf, 225-244. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-82198-1_12.

    Vhumbunu, Clayton Hazvinei. 2024. “Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) Analysis of SADC’s Peace and Security Architecture.” In: Engagement of Africa in Conflict Dynamics and Peace Architectures, edited by Stanley Osezua Ehiane, Lukong Stella Shulika, and Clayton Hazvinei Vhumbunu, 373-400. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8235-6_18.

Public Policy

  • Public Policy

    Strategic Diversification of China’s Foreign Policy in Africa: The Belt and Road Initiative and the Transformation of China’s Public Diplomacy in Nigeria

    Ashot Aleksanyan, Arusyak Aleksanyan, Adedeji Daniel Gbadebo
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article examines the strategic diversification of China’s foreign policy in Africa and its operationalization in Nigeria, the continent’s largest economy and most populous market. It asks how China converts economic engagement - trade, investment, infrastructure, and development assistance - into longer-term political and normative influence, and treats soft power and public diplomacy as analytical instruments rather than descriptive labels. Drawing on a qualitative case study and descriptive data from authoritative sources (SAIS-CARI, UNCTAD, the World Bank, FOCAC documents, and Nigeria’s National Bureau of Statistics), the article argues that China’s leverage rests on a diversified, bundled model in which infrastructure finance, market access, technical standards, and cultural and digital cooperation are deployed jointly and reinforced through FOCAC and the Belt and Road Initiative. The findings show deepening but asymmetric ties: a persistent Nigerian trade deficit and hydrocarbon-concentrated exports alongside Chinese dominance of manufactured imports and infrastructure contracts. The article contributes a disaggregated, instrument-level account that distinguishes the continental, Sub-Saharan, and bilateral levels of China’s African engagement.

    References

    Adegbite, Oyeyemi. 2026. A Glimpse at Emerging Nigerian-Owned Multinational Corporations. In: Perspectives on the Practice of Management in Africa: The Case of Nigeria. Springer, Singapore, pp. 153-173. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-7848-1_7.

    Africa Center for Strategic Studies. 2026. What to Expect from Africa-China Relations in 2026. January 16, 2026. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://africacenter.org/spotlight/africa-china-relations-2026/.

    AidData. 2023. Global Chinese Development Finance Dataset, Version 3.0. Williamsburg, VA: AidData at William & Mary. https://www.aiddata.org/data/aiddatas-global-chinese-development-finance-dataset-version-3-0.

    Ajah, Anthony Chinonso, and Jonah Isaac Onuoha. 2025. “China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Infrastructure Development in Nigeria: Unveiling a Paradigm Shift or Repackaging of Failed Ventures?” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 54 (2): 119-148. https://doi.org/10.1177/18681026251330645.

    Ben-Enukora, Charity A., John-Bell S. Okoye, and Babatunde K. Adeyeye. 2025. “Media Framing and Public Opinion on Chinese-Funded Transportation Infrastructure in Nigeria and Kenya: A Comparative Study.” In: Media and Communication Systems for Sustainability in Nigeria, edited by Nelson Okorie, Oluyinka Osunkunle, and Kehinde Oyesomi, 379-407. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-75221-6_19.

    Bert, Wayne. 2003. China: Challenging Regional Power. In: The United States, China and Southeast Asian Security: A Changing of the Guard?. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 58-106. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230501355_3

    Bijian, Zheng. 2005. “China’s ‘Peaceful Rise’ to Great-Power Status.” Foreign Affairs 84 (5): 18-24. https://doi.org/10.2307/20031702.

    Cabestan, Jean-Pierre. 2023. “The Belt and Road Initiative and China’s Hegemony in Africa.” Orbis 67 (4): 544-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2023.08.005.

    Carmody, Pádraig, Ian Taylor, and Tim Zajontz. 2022. “China’s spatial fix and ‘debt diplomacy’ in Africa: Constraining Belt or Road to economic transformation?” Canadian Journal of African Studies 56 (1): 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.2020.1868014.

    Chen, Jing. 2025. “Factors Influencing China’s Participation in UN Peacekeeping Operations.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 30: 289-321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-024-09891-5.

    China Africa Research Initiative. 2025a. Chinese FDI in Africa Data Overview. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.sais-cari.org/chinese-investment-in-africa.

    China Africa Research Initiative. 2025b. China-Africa bilateral trade data overview. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.sais-cari.org/data-china-africa-trade.

    China Africa Research Initiative. 2025c. Chinese GLOBAL foreign aid. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.sais-cari.org/data-chinese-global-foreign-aid.

    China-Global South Project. 2026. “China’s Export Surge to Africa in 2025 Complicates Efforts to Rebalance Trade.” The China–Global South Project. Accessed June 15, 2026. https://chinaglobalsouth.com/analysis/the-2025-china-africa-trade-rundown/.

    Chiyemura, Frangton, Elisa Gambino, and Tim Zajontz. 2023. “Infrastructure and the Politics of African State Agency: Shaping the Belt and Road Initiative in East Africa.” Chinese Political Science Review 8: 105-131 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41111-022-00214-8.

    Dagold, Mandy, and Mitchel Stimers. 2024. “The sustainability of developmental programs by the U.S. and China in Sub-Saharan Africa: a comparison of effectiveness.” SN Social Sciences 4, 79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-024-00879-9.

    Danner, Lukas K. 2018. China’s Peaceful Development Grand Strategy. In: China’s Grand Strategy: Contradictory Foreign Policy?. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 27-49. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65777-6_3.

    dos Santos Junior, Luis Haroldo Pereira. 2025. “Security Risks of Climate Migration in West Africa: The Role of the African Union.” In: Rethinking Climate Change, Security and Politics, edited by Steven Ratuva, Mercedes Alda-Fernández, Dalila Gharbaoui, and Masaki Kataoka, 75-98. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4843-6_4.

    Duan, Kun, Plamen Ivanov, and Richard Werner. 2025. “Deciphering the Chinese Economic Miracle: The Resolution of an Age-Old Economists’ Debate — and Its Central Role in Rapid Economic Development.” Review of Political Economy 37 (1): 202-226. https://doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2023.2180200.

    Duggan, Niall, Jörn-Carsten Gottwald, and Sebastian Bersick. 2024. “Still a Work in Progress: The Ongoing Evolution of the Role Conception Underlying China’s Belt and Road Initiative.” Area Development and Policy 9 (3): 385-406. https://doi.org/10.1080/23792949.2024.2311891.

    Ecofin Agency. 2025. “China-Africa Trade up 4.8% to $295bn in 2024.” Ecofin Agency. Accessed June 15, 2026. https://www.ecofinagency.com/public-management/2001-46339-china-africa-trade-up-4-8-to-295bn-in-2024.

    Edeh, Emmanuel C. 2024. “Creating Space for Africa: Revisiting China’s Call for Co-Construction of the Belt and Road Initiative with African Countries.” Journal of Public Affairs 24 (4): e2954. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2954.

    Emupenne, Olanrewaju, and Michelle Small. 2024. “Global Challenges, Regional Interventions: Exploring the Climate Change Adaptation Strategies of the African Union and the European Union.” In: Africa-EU Relations and the African Continental Free Trade Area: Redefining the Dynamics of Power and Economic Partnership in a Complex Global Order, edited by Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka, and Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba, 223-251. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-57992-9_11.

    Ename Minko, Abraham. 2024. “Intersections of Middle East Crises and African Stability: Assessing the Impact of Regional Conflicts on Peace and Security in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 3 (3(9): 11-33. https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2024.3.9.011.

    Ename Minko, Abraham. 2025. “The Nexus Between International Humanitarian Law and Peacebuilding in Africa: A Comprehensive Assessment of Preventive Mechanisms.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 4 (1(10): 79-109. https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2025.4.10.079.

    Finance in Africa. 2026. “China’s Exports to Nigeria Surge 37% to $13bn in 2025.” Finance in Africa. Accessed June 15, 2026. https://financeinafrica.com/insights/chinas-exports-to-nigeria-surge/.

    Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC). 2024. Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Beijing Action Plan (2025-2027). Beijing: FOCAC, September 5, 2024. Accessed June 15, 2026. http://www.focac.org/eng/zywx_1/zywj/202409/t20240926_11497783.htm.

    Frimpong, Isaac Owusu. 2025a. Locating Africa in China’s Quest for Global Superpower Status. In: China’s Emerging Security Diplomacy in Africa. Springer, Singapore, pp. 23-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4364-6_2.

    Frimpong, Isaac Owusu. 2025b. Explaining China’s Rising Security Activities in Africa. In: China’s Emerging Security Diplomacy in Africa. Springer, Singapore, pp. 187-205. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-4364-6_8.

    Gbadebo, Adedeji. 2025. “China’s Belt And Road Initiative And Nigeria’s Infrastructural Development: Assessing The Risk And Benefits Of Railway Investment.” Journal of Governance and Administrative Reform 6 (2): 264-282. https://doi.org/10.20473/jgar.v6i2.71907.

    Guest, Janeen. 2026. Introduction to China’s Infrastructure Development Aid in Africa. In: China's Infrastructure Aid and Investment: Impact on Development in Africa, with a Focus on Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Springer, Cham, pp. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-11964-3_1.

    Hu, Le. 2025. The Stalemate Period (2): China’s Efforts to Seek Shared Interests and Identity with Regional Countries Through Belt and Road Initiative. In: China’s Peaceful Rise. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 177-205. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2661-8_8.

    Hussain, Taofik Oyewo. 2026. “China’s Expanding Footprint in Nigeria: Implications of USAID’s Suspension on Development and Geopolitical Alignments.” Africa Spectrum 61(1): 146-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/00020397251376009.

    Idrees, Mahmud Gana, Adamu Abdullahi Bashir, Alhaji Maikano Zurkallaini, Suleiman Dauda Abubakar, and Mohammed Rabiu Fauziyya. 2024. “Nigeria-China Bilateral Relations: Trade, Investment and Political Influence.” Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations 2 (2): 39-48. https://journals.fukashere.edu.ng/index.php/kjpir/article/view/306.

    Isingizwe, Gakwaya P., and Giuseppe T. Cirella. 2023. “The African Union’s Agenda 2063 and Africa’s Tourism Industry.” In: Uncertainty Shocks in Africa: Impact and Equilibrium Strategies for Sound Economic and Social Development, edited by Giuseppe T. Cirella, 101- 120. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21885-9_6.

    Jiang, Lu. 2020. Practical Challenges of Chinese ‘Package’ Model of Development Cooperation: A Public Policy Implementation Approach. In: Beyond Official Development Assistance: Chinese Development Cooperation and African Agriculture. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 181-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9507-0_5.

    Khan, Shabhaz. 2025. “The Chinese Way—Harnessing the Power of Cultural Heritage for Inclusive and Sustainable Development.” In: Global Development and Cooperation with China: New Ideas, Policies and Initiatives for a Changing World, edited by Henry Huiyao Wang, and Mabel Lu Miao, 203-212. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2452-2_20.

    King, Kenneth. 2025. “Forum on China-Africa Cooperation 9: The Massive Ambitions for Education and Cultural Cooperation Between China and Africa.” ECNU Review of Education 8(3): 663-675. https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311251322185.

    Kopiński, Dominik, and Pádraig Carmody. 2023. “The Political Economy of FDI and Spillovers in Africa: Can China Deliver on Hirschman’s Ideas.” In: The Political Economy of Chinese FDI and Spillover Effects in Africa, edited by Dominik Kopiński, Pádraig Carmody, and Ian Taylor, 15-45. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38715-9_2.

    Kyirewiah, Francis Kwesi, and Zou Xiaolong. 2022. “20-Years of China-Africa Cooperation: Processes, Developments and Achievements.” Journal of African Foreign Affairs 9 (2): 25-43.

    Li, Weiping, amd Saite Lu. 2024. “Assessing Structural Transformation and the Potential Impacts of Belt and Road Initiative Projects in Africa.” The European Journal of Development Research 36: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-024-00624-1.

    Li, Xiaoyun, Lixia Tang, Jixia Lu, Xiuli Xu, Yue Zhang, Gubo Qi, and Chuanhong Zhang. 2022. Agricultural Development through Science and Technology: The Extraterritorial Travel of Agricultural Technocratic Rationality. In: Chinese Agricultural Technology Aid in Africa. China and Globalization 2.0. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 37-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9396-0_2.

    Liu, Ziwei, and Yibing Ding. 2024. “Enhancing China's image in Africa: The role of the Belt and Road Initiative.” China Economic Review 87: 102239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2024.102239.

    Manga Edimo, R. Mireille. 2025. “China’s BRI in Africa: Exploring Development Through Discourses and Policy Practices.” In: China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Africa: Aid Policies and Economic Development, edited by R. Mireille Manga Edimo, and Julien Rajaoson, 1-26. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-80400-7_1

    Mees, Heleen. 2016. China as the World’s Factory. In: The Chinese Birdcage: How China’s Rise Almost Toppled the West. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 21-32. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58886-9_3.

    Milliken, Emily. 2025. “Djibouti is the next arena for US-China competition in the Red Sea.” Atlantic Council, July 31, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/djibouti-is-the-next-arena-for-us-china-competition-in-the-red-sea/.

    Mjenga, Omar. 2024. “China–Africa Partnership in Influencing the New World Order.” In: Enhancing Global Governance in a Fragmented World: Prospects, Issues, and the Role of China. China and Globalization, edited by Henry Huiyao Wang, and Mabel Lu Miao, 215-225. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-2558-8_18.

    Montenegro, Renan Holanda, and João Ricardo Cumarú Silva Alves. 2024. “China-Africa Relations, US Reactions: Economy and Security.” In: The Palgrave Handbook on China-Europe-Africa Relations, edited by Yichao Li, Francisco José B. S. Leandro, Jorge Tavares da Silva, and Carlos Rodrigues, 385-406. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5640-7_18.

    Mulugeta, Messay. 2025. “Africa in the global South’s future development trajectory: the role of Africa-China relations.” Asian Review of Political Economy 4 (21). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44216-025-00066-4.

    Naz, Samra. 2025. “Dragon’s Ascend: China’s Forging Institutional Resilience in Globalized Landscape.” In: China’s Globalisation and the New World Order, edited by Najimdeen Bakare, and Adam Saud, 121-135. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-3716-4_6.

    Ndofor, Hermann Achidi, Carla D. Jones, and Mengge Li. 2025. “What Happens When Your Hand is in My Pocket: The Foreign Policy Effects of China’s Foreign Direct Investment in Africa.” Journal of Business Ethics 199: 393-412 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05794-w.

    Oben, Remy Jonkam, Shikha Daga, and Aliya Zhakanova. 2026. “Multidimensional market connectedness amid escalating trade tensions: largest US and Chinese Tech equities, DeFi, and ESG.” Future Business Journal 12, 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-026-00784-y.

    Odeh, Lemuel Ekedegwa, and Muideen Olalekan Akinade. 2017. “China’s footprint on Nigeria’s telecommunications market: the case of Huawei technologies since 2000.” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 26: 107-121. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48562081.

    Pradt, Tilman. 2016. Conclusion: China’s New Foreign Policy. In: China’s New Foreign Policy: Military Modernisation, Multilateralism and the ‘China Threat’. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 197-204. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33295-6_10.

    Razzaq, Tayyaba. 2025. “China’s Economic Expansion: Soft Power Play Through SEZs, BRI, and BRICS.” In: China's Globalisation and the New World Order, edited by Najimdeen Bakare, and Adam Saud, 159-181. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-3716-4_8.

    State Council of the People’s Republic of China. 2026. “China Implements Historic Zero Tariffs for All African Nations with Diplomatic Ties.” The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, May 1, 2026. https://english.www.gov.cn/policies/policywatch/202605/01/content_WS69f45e35c6d00ca5f9a0ac01.html.

    Udeogu, Celestine Uchechukwu. 2025. “Political economy of the US-OPEC tussle in the global oil market: understanding Nigeria’s revenue and debt crises.” International Politics. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-025-00711-y.

    van Eekelen, Willem. 2016. Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. In: Indian Foreign Policy and the Border Dispute with China: A New Look at Asian Relationships. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, pp. 53-64. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004304314_005.

    Writer, Staff. 2023. “China delivers major infrastructure projects in Nigeria: Key projects include Lekki Deep Sea Port and Lagos Rail Mass Transit project.” Zawya, February 2, 2023. Accessed April 7, 2026. https://www.zawya.com/en/projects/bri/china-delivers-major-infrastructure-projects-in-nigeria-elj6dv3l/

    Yang, Manling. 2026. “Framing of Development Policies toward Africa: A Comparative Study of China and the European Union.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 67 (1): 23-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2024.2361776.

    Yigit, Sureyya. 2024. China–Africa Multifaceted Collaboration. In: China-Africa Science, Technology and Innovation Collaboration, edited by Mammo Muchie, Angathevar Baskaran, and Mingfeng Tang, 351-369. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-4576-0_19.

    Yin, Huanhuan, Zahiruddin Fitri Abu Hassan, and Syahrul Nizam Kamaruzzaman. 2025. “Research on the Policies of Prefabricated Construction Challenges in China: A Systematic Literature Review.” Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, May: 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2025.2506466.

    You, Zhuran, and Yingzi Hu. 2026. The Unity of Heaven and Humanity: On the Origin of Moral Cultivation. In: PPhilosophy and Civilization: How the Idea of Moral Cultivation Shaped China. Springer, Singapore, pp. 27-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-5660-1_2.

    Zhang, Jun. 2014. “Global Economic Crisis and the ‘Spatial Fix’ of China’s World Factory: The Great ‘Long March’ Inland.” In: Global Economic Crisis and the Politics of Diversity, edited by Yıldız Atasoy, 132-154. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137293688_6.

    Zhang, Kevin Honglin. 2022. “Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Its Motivations, Determinants, and Impact on the African Economies.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Africa’s Economic Sectors, edited by Evelyn F. Wamboye, and Bichaka Fayissa, 603-624. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75556-0_23.

    Zhu, Keren, Keya Zhou, and William Brockman. 2026. “Contesting China in Africa: US think tank narratives, 2005-2025.” China International Strategy Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42533-026-00212-4.

    Züfle, Simon, Philipp von Carlowitz, and Jörg Büechl. 2024. “China in Africa: Companies as Enablers and Beneficiaries? An Empirical Evaluation of State-Business Relations in the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.” Business and Politics 26 (4): 573-597. https://doi.org/10.1017/bap.2024.13.

  • Public Policy

    John Rawls and the Pursuit of Social Justice in Contemporary Nigeria: A Philosophical Study

    Oladele Daniel Idowu, Esther Oluwaseun Idowu
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article examines the potential application of John Rawls's theory of justice as fairness to the contemporary sociopolitical situation in Nigeria. With a population of over 235 million people representing diverse ethnic and religious groups, Nigeria faces significant challenges in achieving social justice, including widespread inequality, systemic corruption, ethnic tensions, and inadequate resource allocation. Drawing on a philosophical analysis informed by Rawlsian principles, this article explores how concepts such as the original position, the veil of ignorance, and the difference principle can help Nigeria overcome long-standing problems of governance and equality. Using critical analysis and theoretical application, the study demonstrates that while Rawls's framework has the potential to transform Nigeria, its implementation faces significant practical challenges, including deep-rooted corruption, systems of ethnic patronage, and historical inequalities. This article offers recommendations for adapting Rawls's theory of justice to the Nigerian context, focusing on institutional reforms, equitable resource distribution, and inclusive governance. Combining political philosophy with practical governance strategies, this analysis contributes to ongoing debates about social justice, democratic consolidation, and sustainable development in Africa's most populous country.

     

    References

    Edogiawerie, Morris K. O., and Innocent O. Ekuase. 2021. “An examination of Rawls’ social justice model: an its implications for contemporary Nigeria.” Wukari International Studies Journal 5 (1): 66-79.

    John, Elijah Okon. 2014. “A Critique of John Rawls’ Social Justice Theory and the Fate of Nigeria’s Politics in the 21st-Century and Beyond.” Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization 28: 12-20.

    Kachembere, Taurai. 2026. “Rawlsian Ubuntucracy and the Prospect for a Political Philosophy for Failed African States.” Politikon 53 (1): 21-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2026.2643419.

    Mathis, Klaus, and Deborah Shannon. 2009. John Rawls’s Theory of Justice. In: Efficiency Instead of Justice?: Searching for the Philosophical Foundations of the Economic Analysis of Law. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 121-139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9798-0_7.

    Obienyem, Valentine, and Charles Nweke. 2025. “John Rawls’ Theory of Justice: Relevance to Nigeria Ethno-Religious Challenges.” Advances in Law, Pedagogy, and Multidisciplinary Humanities 2 (2): 203-214. https://jurnal.fs.umi.ac.id/index.php/alpamet/article/view/862.

    Okaneme, Godwin. 2020. “John Rawls’ Theory of Justice and its relevance to Contemporary Nigerian Democracy: A Philosophical Appraisal.” AJAP - AMAMIHE Journal of Applied Philosophy 18 (5): 125-146.

    Orji, Chidi Paul. 2023. “John Rawls’ Theory of Social Justice and its Philosophical relevance to Nigeria’s Political Stability.” AJAP - AMAMIHE Journal of Applied Philosophy 21 (4): 81-92.

    Orji, Chidi Paul. 2025. “The Ethical Principles of John Rawls as a Tool for Social Justice and Peace in Contemporary Society.” Socialscientia: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 10 (1). https://journals.aphriapub.com/index.php/SS/article/view/3181.

    Plott, Charles R. 1978. “Rawls’s Theory of Justice: An Impossibility Result.” In: Decision Theory and Social Ethics: Issues in Social Choice, edited by Hans W. Gottinger, and Werner Leinfellner, 201-214. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-9838-4_10.

    Richman, Buwokuromo I. 2022. “An Examination of the ‘Difference Principle’ In John Rawls’ Theory Of Justice: A Case For Egalitarian Society In Nigeria.” Otuoke Journal of Social Sciences 2 (2): 55-67. https://journals.fuotuoke.edu.ng/index.php/ojss/article/view/45.

    Roberts-Cady, Sarah. 2025. “Rawls and Economic Liberties.” Res Publica 31: 25-45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-024-09668-w.

    Sari, Cut Maya Aprita. 2020. “Rawls’s Theory of Justice and Its Relevance in Analyzing Injustice on Ethnic Phenomenon.” Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 7 (3): 210-218. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48710267.

    Smith, Paul. 2008. John Rawls’s Theory of Justice. In: Moral and Political Philosophy: Key Issues, Concepts and Theories. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 185-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-59394-7_12.

    Teays, Wanda. 2025. John Rawls: On Justice. In: Solitary Confinement: Philosophical Perspectives. Springer, Cham, pp. 91-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-96566-1_8.

    Yusuf, Musa Yusuf, and Mansur Sulaiman Shugaba. 2024. “Contextualizing John Rawl’s theory of social justice in Nigeria’s democracy.” Journal of Political Discourse 2(2(2): 220-229. https://jopd.com.ng/index.php/jopdz/article/view/169.

Security Policy

  • Security Policy

    Risks of Military Confrontation in the South Caucasus in the Context of Geopolitical Transformations

    Siranush Melikyan
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article examines the key issues surrounding the formation of new military-political platforms in the South Caucasus region, which have influenced the shifting balance of power and the regional security agenda. Key issues discussed include the new military-based cooperation existing in the region and the potential geopolitical implications it may have. One thing is certain: the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and subsequently the 2020 war, is impacting regional military cooperation. Therefore, it is imperative to examine a variety of new scenarios and current dynamics. The South Caucasus remains a strategically important yet volatile region, where military cooperation and security dynamics are shaped by evolving geopolitical developments. This article analyzes the military strategies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, examining their evolving defense strategies, alliances, and regional security interactions using balance-of-power theory and regional security complex theory. This study contributes to an understanding of how small states in contested regions adapt their military strategies in response to emerging geopolitical realities. In this context, regional stability presupposes a joint determination of common threats to national security, the possibilities and limits of joint efforts to achieve certain political goals, and ways to ensure peace and security in the South Caucasus.

     

    References

    Aleksanyan, Ashot. 2025. “Russlands hybrider Einfluss auf die europäische Integration Armeniens durch den 44-Tage-Krieg: Lehren für Armenien.” In: Russische Schockwellen: Der Krieg in der Ukraine und die Lage in den angrenzenden Regionen, Herausgegeben von Olaf Leiße, 219-235. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-46812-5_11.

    Amable, Dennis Senam. 2022. “Theorizing the Emergence of Security Regions: An Adaptation for the Regional Security Complex Theory.” Global Studies Quarterly 2 (4), October, ksac065. https://doi.org/10.1093/isagsq/ksac065.

    Amoris, Louise. 2026. Armenia at the Crossroads and Beyond the EU and Russia. In: Living in the Split: The Agency of Armenia and Georgia In-Between Russia and the EU. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 237-312. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-06577-3_6.

    Asgarov, Sirus. 2026. “Comparative Lessons from Turkey-Israel and Syria Relations: A Neorealist and Game Theory Approach.” Israel Affairs (January): 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2611818.

    Avdaliani, Emil. 2022a. Shifting Global Balance of Power and the South Caucasus. In: New World Order and Small Regions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 17-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4037-8_2.

    Avdaliani, Emil. 2022b. From Central Asia to the Black Sea: China and the South Caucasus. In: New World Order and Small Regions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 165-190. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4037-8_6.

    Babayev, Azer, and Hans-Joachim Spanger. 2020. “A Way Out for Nagorno-Karabakh: Autonomy, Secession—or What Else?.” In: The Nagorno-Karabakh deadlock: Insights from successful conflict settlements, edited by Azer Babayev, Bruno Schoch, and Hans-Joachim Spanger, 277-320. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25199-4_14.

    Babayev, Azer. 2020. “Nagorno-Karabakh: The Genesis and Dynamics of the Conflict.” In: The Nagorno-Karabakh deadlock: Insights from successful conflict settlements, edited by Azer Babayev, Bruno Schoch, and Hans-Joachim Spanger, 17-38. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25199-4_2.

    Balian, Hrair. 2026. U.S./EU Mediation-Nagorno-Karabakh’s Demise (2021-2025). In: Anatomy of Peacemaking: Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict & Missed Opportunities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 307-360. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-12490-6_6.

    Balta, Evren, and Hatice Betül Bal. 2026. “How do middle powers act? Turkey’s foreign policy and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.” International Politics 63: 161-183. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-025-00679-9.

    Bashirova, Aynur. 2024. “Evolution of Strategic Relations Between Azerbaijan and Israel During the Heydar Aliyev Period.” In: Heydar Aliyev and the Foundations of Modern Azerbaijan, edited by M. Hakan Yavuz, Michael M. Gunter, and Shamkhal Abilov, 253-278. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58265-3_10.

    Buzan, Barry, and Ole Wæver. 2003. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. of Cambridge Studies in International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Buzan, Barry. 2003. “Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World.” In: Theories of New Regionalism: A Palgrave Macmillan Reader, edited by Fredrik Söderbaum, and Timothy M. Shaw, 140-159. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403938794_8.

    Cheterian, Vicken. 2024. “Technological Determinism or Strategic Advantage? Comparing the Two Karabakh Wars between Armenia and Azerbaijan.” Journal of Strategic Studies 47 (2): 214-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2022.2127093.

    Cohen, Ronen A., and Tzvi Lev. 2023. “Azerbaijan’s State Building Power as a Reflection of Israel–Iran Hostility.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 50 (1): 107–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2021.1937516.

    Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2026. “New Actors in Arms Procurement in the South Caucasus: The Azerbaijan–Armenia Arms Race after the Dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261416945.

    Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2026. “New Actors in Arms Procurement in the South Caucasus: The Azerbaijan-Armenia Arms Race after the Dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261416945.

    Freedman, Robert O. 2023. “Moscow and Jerusalem: A Troubled 75-Year Relationship.” Israel Affairs 29 (3): 492-511. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2023.2206211.

    Gülseven, Enver. 2024. “Ontological Security-Seeking in Turkish-Israeli Relations: Prospects and Challenges of Normalisation.” Israel Affairs 30 (1): 125-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2024.2295620.

    Hovsepyan, Levon, and Artyom A. Tonoyan. 2024. “From alliance to ‘soft conquest’: the anatomy of the Turkish-Azerbaijani military alliance before and after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war.” Small Wars and Insurgencies 35 (4): 622-655. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2312957.

    Ismayilov, Elnur. 2013. “Israel and Azerbaijan: The Evolution of a Strategic Partnership.” Israel Journal of foreign Affairs VII: 1. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2535158.

    Kalbizada, Elnur Hashim, and Eldar Arif Jafarov. 2025. “Israel-Georgia Relations: Factors and Stages.” Israel Affairs 31 (2): 230-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2469451.

    Kumar, Mukesh. 2024. Pakistan’s JF-17 Sales to Azerbaijan and Wider Implications.” Indian Council of World Affairs, October 23, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=3&ls_id=11965&lid=7255.

    Lakshminarayanan, Radhika, and Tigran Yepremyan. 2023. “Armenia-India partnership: geopolitical and geo-economic implications in the Eurasian context.” Asia Europe Journal 21: 81-100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-023-00665-x.

    Manukyan, Zhak. 2024. “Russia’s Foreign Policy in the South Caucasus in the Context of Increasing New Regional Competition.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 3 (2(8): 28-41. https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2024.3.8.028.

    Meister, Stefan. 2024. “Comprehensive Security in the Wider Black Sea Region: The Connection with the South Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.” In: Security Dynamics in the Black Sea Region Geopolitical Shifts and Regional Orders, edited by Kornely Kakachia, Stephan Malerius, and Stefan Meister, 191-204. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-62957-0_15.

    Melikyan, Siranush. 2024. “Fast-tracking Armenia-India military cooperation.” ORF, May 17, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/fast-tracking-armenia-india-military-cooperation.

    Ministry of Defence of Georgia. 2021. “Cyber Security Strategy 2021-2024.” Accessed April 16, 2026. https://mod.gov.ge/uploads/Cyber_Security/Cyber_Security_Strategy_of_the_Ministry_of_Defence_of_Georgia_2021-2024“.pdf.

    Mumtaz, Saima. 2023. “Role of Pakistan in Azerbaijan-Armenia War and its implications for South Asia.” Dinkum Journal of Social Innovations 2 (10): 598-608.

    Neset, Siri, Mustafa Aydin, Ayça Ergun, Richard Giragosian, Kornely Kakachia, and Arne Strand. 2023. Changing Geopolitics of the South Caucasus after the Second Karabakh War. Prospect for Regional Cooperation and/or Rivalry. Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI Report 4).

    Omidi, Ali. 2025. “Azerbaijan’s Relations with Israel: Classic Alliance, Strategic Partnership, or Marriage of Convenience.” Israel Affairs 31 (1): 9-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2444042.

    Öztiğ, Laçin Idil. 2023. “A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Foreign Policy on the Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflicts (1988-2020).” Insight Turkey 25 (2): 139-162. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48732438.

    Poghosyan, Tevan, and Arpine Martirosyan. 2013. “What the People Think: Key Findings and Observations of a Town Hall Meeting Project in Azerbaijan, Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh.” In: Europe’s Next Avoidable War: Nagorno-Karabakh, edited by Michael Kambeck, and Sargis Ghazaryan, 69-77. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137030009_7.

    Shahbazov, Fuad. 2026. “Azerbaijan’s Pragmatism: Navigating Foreign Policy in a Fragmented World.” In: Emerging Partners of Central Asia: Engagement of Small and Middle Powers, edited by Mehmet Fatih Oztarsu, and Bongchul Kim, 165-183. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-10499-1_7.

    Sharova, Natalia, and Ronen A. Cohen. 2025. “The Quest for Regional Leadership: Constructed Revisionism and Türkiye’s South Caucasus Policy (2002-2024).” Journal of Asian and African Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251380754.

    Sharova, Natalia, and Ronen A. Cohen. 2026. “The Pillars of Türkiye’s Constructed Revisionist Vision of the South Caucasus Policy, 2002-2024.” Cogent Arts & Humanities 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2026.2631310.

    Souleimanov, Emil, Maya Ehrmann, and Huseyn Aliyev. 2014. “Focused on Iran? Exploring the Rationale behind the Strategic Relationship between Azerbaijan and Israel.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 14 (4): 471-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2014.967945.

    Stivachtis, Yannis A. 2021. “A Mediterranean region? Regional security complex theory revisited.” Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 21 (3): 416-428.

    Sukiasyan, Narek, and Erik Davtyan. 2025. “The South Caucasus Reconstructed: Polarity and Regional Security Order after the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020.” The International Spectator 60 (4): 120-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2025.2500407.

    The Armenian Report. 2023. “Armenia and France Sign Historic Agreement Enhancing Their Military Defense and Security Ties.” October 22, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.thearmenianreport.com/post/armenia-and-france-sign-historic-agreement-enhancing-their-military-defense-and-security-ties?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    The Prime Minister of the RA. 2026. “Press releases: Armenia and France sign joint declaration on establishing strategic partnership, exchange several documents.” May 5, 2026. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.primeminister.am/en/press-release/item/2026/05/05/Nikol-Pashinyan-Emmanuel-Macron-Declaration/.

    U.S. Department of State. 2019. “Joint Statement of the U.S.-Georgia Security Working Group.” Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://2021-2025.state.gov/joint-statement-of-the-u-s-georgia-security-working-group/.

    Vasilyan, Syuzanna. 2023. “Armenia as a Small State: Affected by the Arms Race Among Middle and Great Powers in the Middle East.” In: The Arms Race in the Middle East: Contemporary Security Dynamics, edited by Mohammad Eslami, and Alena Vysotskaya Guedes Vieira, 359-374. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32432-1_22.

    Vasilyan, Syuzanna. 2026. “Armenia’s Policy ‘Twist’ to Cumbersome Tactical ‘Hedging’.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261442870.

    Walsh, Barney. 2020. “Revisiting Regional Security Complex Theory in Africa: Museveni’s Uganda and Regional Security in East Africa.” African Security 13 (4): 300-324. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2021.1873507.

    Yemelianova, Galina M. 2023. “Turkey, the Karabakh Conflict and the Legacy of the Eastern Question.” Caucasus Survey 12 (1): 73-102. https://doi.org/10.30965/23761202-bja10020.

  • Security Policy

    Rethinking the Sharing of Challenges in Allied Relations: Indicators for Assessing Relations in the Dynamics of Armenian-Russian Military Cooperation

    Alen Ghevondyan
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This article analyzes the main trends in rethinking challenges in the dynamics of Armenian-Russian military cooperation. In this regard, it comparatively examines how alliances have played a key role throughout the history of international relations, from the Peloponnesian Wars to modern times. As alliances of states formed both for collective defense and to project influence through pooled resources in relation to other alliances and international systems, alliances have continually faced a range of internal and external challenges. These challenges have primarily been related to the level of mutual trust between member states, the degree to which their interests coincide, and the fulfillment—or non-fulfillment—of mutual commitments. This problem has become particularly acute in the 21st century, when formally concluded alliance treaties have not always been fully implemented in practice; that is, alliances created through mutual assistance agreements have not always functioned effectively. In this context, it is crucial to identify, systematize, and analyze the indicators and variables that determine the willingness of bilateral or multilateral state alliances with formally signed treaties to provide mutual support in real-world political and military situations. From this perspective, this article particularly examines and evaluates the structure, nature, and viability of the formal alliance between Armenia and Russia in the new realities of contemporary international relations.

    References

    Abrahamyan, Eduard. 2025. “Russia Reengages with Armenia (and Azerbaijan).” The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, November 6, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13900-russia-reengages-with-armenia-and-azerbaijan.html.

    Armenia Today. 2022. “Armenia is the only country that voted against the decision to expel Russia from the Council of Europe.” February 26, 2022. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armeniatoday.am/hy/world-2/431754/ (In Armenian).

    ARMENPRESS. 2021. “Armenia, Russia hold joint military exercises.” November 25, 2021. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1069143?utm_source=chatgpt.com

    ARMENPRESS. 2023. “Armenia to host Eagle Partner 2023 joint military exercise with United States.” September 6, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1118856.

    ARMENPRESS. 2024. “Joint Armenian-American exercises “Eagle Partner 2024” begin in Armenia.” July 15, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1195755?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    ARMENPRESS. 2025. “Armenia participates in Combined Resolve military exercises with U.S.” February 3, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1211009?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    Barabanov, Oleg. 2025. “How UN General Assembly Voted on Resolutions Concerning Russia and Iran in December 2025.” Valdai Club Foundation, December 31, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/how-un-general-assembly-voted-on-resolutions-conce/.

    Bennett, D. Scott. 1997. “Testing Alternative Models of Alliance Duration, 1816-1984.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (3): 846-878. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111677.

    Bergsmann, Stefan. 2001. “The Concept of Military Alliance.” In: Small States and Alliances, edited by Erich Reiter, and Heinz Gärtner, 25-37. Physica, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-13000-1_4.

    Booth, Ken. 2021. “The Evolution of Strategic Thinking.” In: Contemporary Strategy: Theories and Policies, eduted by John Baylis, Ken Booth, John Garnett, and Phil Williams, 22-49. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003104339.

    CIVILNET. 2014. “Armenia Votes with Russia Against Ukraine.” March 28, 2014. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://civilnet.am/en/news/390140.

    CIVILNET. 2024. “What weapons have Armenia and Azerbaijan bought since the 2020 war?” April 1, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://civilnet.am/en/news/770063.

    Crawford, Timothy W. 2024. “Dark corners of alliance politics: alliance theory concepts and great power competition.” International Politics. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-024-00626-0.

    Crescenzi, Mark J. C., Jacob D. Kathman, Katja B. Kleinberg, and Reed Wood. 2012. “Reliability, Reputation, and Alliance Formation.” International Studies Quarterly 56 (2): 259-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00711.x.

    Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2025. “Great powers, the arming of non-state groups, and the prolongation of armed conflicts in the Middle East.” Asian Review of Political Economy 4 (4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44216-025-00046-8.

    Daily Sabah. 2023. “Armenia cancels military drills with Russia amid tensions.” January 10, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.dailysabah.com/world/africa/traditional-healers-turn-to-ancestral-remedies-as-ebola-spreads-in-drc.

    Deni, John R. 2025. “NATO after 2/22: A revitalized alliance?.” Journal of Transatlantic Studies 23: 228-248. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42738-025-00146-6.

    Downs, George W., David M. Rocke, and Peter N. Barsoom. 1996. “Is the Good News about Compliance Good News about Cooperation?” International Organization 50 (3): 379-406. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300033427.

    Epstein, Joseph, and Sheila Paylan. 2025. “Russia’s imperial approach toward Armenia and Azerbaijan has backfired.” Atlantic Council, September 16, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/russias-imperial-approach-toward-armenia-and-azerbaijan-has-backfired/.

    Fedder, Edwin H. 1968. “The Concept of Alliance.” International Studies Quarterly 12 (1): 65-86. https://doi.org/10.2307/3013558.

    Gaubatz, Kurt Taylor. 1996. “Democratic States and Commitment in International Relations.” International Organization 50 (1): 109-139. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300001685.

    Gibler, Douglas M., and John A. Vasquez. 1998. “Uncovering the Dangerous Alliances, 1495-1980.” International Studies Quarterly 42 (4): 785-807. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2600902.

    Gupta, Asha. 2025. “Militarizing International Relations.” In: Reconstruction of Peace in a World of War: Moral Concerns about the Future, edited by Catalina Elena Dobre, Gabriela Palavicini, and Rafael García Pavón, 65-79. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-95123-7_6.

    Holsti, Ole R., P. Terrence Hopmann, and John D. Sullivan. 1973. Unity and Disintegration in International Alliances: Comparative Studies. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

    Kaplan, Lawrence. 2006. “Alliance.” In: Palgrave Advances in Cold War History, edited by Saki R. Dockrill, and Geraint Hughes, 111-129. Palgrave Advances. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230502147_5.

    Klein, Margarete. 2019. “Russia’s military policy in the post-Soviet space: aims, instruments and perspectives.” SWP Research Paper 1. https://doi.org/10.18449/2019RP01.

    Krause, Keith. 1991. “Military Statecraft: Power and Influence in Soviet and American Arms Transfer Relationships.” International Studies Quarterly 35 (3): 313-336. https://doi.org/10.2307/2600702.

    Leeds, Brett Ashley. 2003. “Alliance Reliability in Times of War: Explaining State Decisions to Violate Treaties.” International Organization 57 (4): 801-827. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818303574057.

    Leeds, Brett Ashley. 2026. The Alliance Treaty Obligations and Provisions (ATOP) project. Rice University. Accessed April 16, 2026. http://www.atopdata.org.

    Liska, George. 1962. Nations in Alliance: The Limits of Interdependence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.

    Mayer, Thierry and Soledad Zignago. 2011. “Notes on CEPII’s Distances Measures: The GeoDist Database.” CEPII Working Paper 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1994531.

    McGowan, Patrick J., and Robert M. Rood. 1975. “Alliance Behavior in Balance of Power Systems: Applying a Poisson Model to Nineteenth-Century Europe.” The American Political Science Review 69 (3): 859-870. https://doi.org/10.2307/1958395.

    Mediamax Media. 2024. “Armenia is diversifying its arms suppliers.” June 24, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://mediamax.am/am/news/arm_world/55134/ (In Armenian).

    Ministry of Defence of the RA. 2025. “The commencement of the Armenia-U.S. joint exercise “EAGLE PARTNER 2025” was announced.” August, 12, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.mil.am/en/news/12903?utm_source=chatgpt.com

    Morgenthau, Hans J. 1948. Politics among nations. The struggle for power and peace. New York, Knopf.

    Official Website of Statistical Committee RA. 2026. External trade database. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armstat.am/am/?nid=160.

    Official Website of Statistical Committee RA. 2026. Other statistical databases. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armstat.am/am/?nid=14.

    President of Russia. 2010. “Joint news conference following Russian-Armenian talks.” August 20, 2010. Accessed April 16, 2026. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/8695.

    President of Russia. 2011. “Ratification of Protocol No.5 between Russia and Armenia.” June 27, 2011. Accessed April 16, 2026. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/11754.

    Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 2023. “24 Bastion-type armored vehicles are being delivered to Armenia, another 26 will be delivered later. Bill in the French Senate.” December 04, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.azatutyun.am/a/32712633.html (In Armenian).

    Smolnikov, Sergey. 2026. Classifying America’s Foreign Policy Streams. In: US Foreign Policy and Presidential Leadership in an Age of Strategic Uncertainty. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 23-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-11778-6_2.

    Snyder, Glenn H. 1997. Alliance Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.

    Sputnik Armenia. 2025 “Armenia will not participate in the upcoming CSTO summit: stated the aide to the President of the RF.” November 24, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://arm.sputniknews.ru/20251124/hajastany-chi-masnakci-hapk-gagatnazhvoghvovin-rd-nakhagahi-ognakan-96176119.html (In Armenian).

    The MFA of the RF. 1992. “TREATY between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Armenia on the legal status of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation located on the territory of the Republic of Armenia.” August 21, 1992. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/international_contracts/2_contract/48796/ (In Russian).

    The MFA of the RF. 1994. “PROTOCOL between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Armenia on the procedure for financing and logistical support of the Border Troops of the Russian Federation located on the territory of the Republic of Armenia.” January 25, 1994. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/international_contracts/2_contract/48151/ (In Russian).

    The MFA of the RF. 1995. “TREATY between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Armenia on the Russian military base on the territory of the Republic of Armenia.” Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/international_contracts/2_contract/47983/ (In Russian).

    The Prime Minister of the RA. 2024. “Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan's interview with France 24 TV.” February 23, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.primeminister.am/en/interviews-and-press-conferences/item/2024/02/23/Nikol-Pashinyan-Interview-France-24/

    Walt, Stephen M. 1990. The Origins of Alliances. Cornell Studies in Security Affairs Series. Cornell University Press.

    Waltz, Kenneth N. 1979. Theory of International Politics. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Waltz, Kenneth N. 2001. Man, Man, the State, and War: A Theoretical Analysis. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Webber, Mark. 2013. “NATO after 9/11: Theoretical Perspectives.” In: NATO Beyond 9/11: The Transformation of the Atlantic Alliance, edited by Ellen Hallams, Luca Ratti, and Benjamin Zyla, 27-53. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230391222_2.

    Weiss, Tomáš, and Sandra Fernandes. 2025. “Foreign Policy Specialisation in EU Small States: Conceptualising and Analysing an Underexplored Practice.” Journal of International Relations and Development 28: 487-507. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41268-025-00358-5.

    Yamao, Dai. 2025. The Rise of Non-State Actors During Nation-Building in Post-war Iraq. In: Analyzing Impacts of Conflict on Nation-building in Iraq: A Study Based on Surveys and Quantitative Text Analysis. Singapore, pp. 27-58. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-7560-9_3.

    168 Hours. 2025. “Armenia voted in favor of the UN resolution, which contains accusations against Russia.” April 18, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://168.am/2025/04/18/2202230.html (In Armenian).

Book Review

  • Book Review

    Israel, Jonathan I. 2023. Spinoza, Life and Legacy. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Michiel Leezenberg
    View PDF
    Abstract

    This book analyzes the life and legacy of the world-renowned Dutch philosopher Benedict Spinoza, taking into account that some of Spinoza's ideas are continually revived to serve as either the subject of criticism or the source material for the creation of new concepts, thus serving philosophy at every stage of its development. Such fruits of philosophical research subsequently serve science as such. Spinoza is one of the thinkers whose work remains noteworthy today, as his understanding of the world represents a complex interweaving of ontological and epistemological ideas, within the context of which a corresponding human figure, with its soul, body, and social being, is precisely defined. In developing this system, the philosopher often addresses questions that are the most problematic for philosophical science, questions that pit researchers from different fields and even scientific disciplines against each other. In addition to the key philosophical problems, Spinoza’s theory contains other, less fundamental but no less significant issues. The interpretation of God, the search for the optimal method of cognition—all these aspects of Spinoza's theory—have been subject to both serious criticism and support. In both cases, Spinoza's views stimulate scholars to think.

    References

    Gullan-Whur, Margaret. 1998. Within reason: a life of Spinoza. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

    Hadot, Pierre. 2002. What Is Ancient Philosophy? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Israel, Jonathan. 2001. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity, 1650-1750. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Kal, Victor. 2020. De list van Spinoza: De grote gelijkschakeling. Amsterdam: Prometheus.

    Matheron, Alexandre. 1969. Individu et communauté chez Spinoza. Paris: Minuit.

    Méchoulan, Henry. 2022. Spinoza démasqué. Paris: Les éditions du Cerf.

    Nadler, Steven. 2018. Spinoza: A Life. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108635387.

    Negri, Antonio. 1991. The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza’s Metaphysics and Politics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Robert, Jean-Dominique. 1968. Martial Gueroult, Spinoza, t. I: Dieu (Éthique, 1). Paris, Aubier-Montaigne.

    Russell, Bertrand. 1945. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster.

    Smith, A. D. 2014. “Spinoza, Gueroult, and Substance.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 88 (3): 655-688. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45200491.

    Spruit, Leen, and Pina Totaro. 2011. The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza’s Ethica. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004210578.

    The Collected Works of Spinoza, Volume II: Benedictus de Spinoza, edited and translated by Edwin Curley. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016.

    van de Ven, Jeroen M. M. 2022. Printing Spinoza: A Descriptive Bibliography of the Works Published in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004467996.

    Žižek, Slavoj. 2004. Organs without Bodies: Deleuze and Consequences. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203699874.

View All Issues