| P - ISSN | : | 2738-294X |
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Vol. 5 No. 1(13) (2026)
Comparative politics
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Comparative politics
Reforming the EU Asylum and Visa Application Processes: Challenges and Solutions
AbstractThe European Union is experiencing a period of profound uncertainty, marked by global instability, armed conflicts, diverging international approaches to human rights, and growing migration flows. Current asylum and visa systems, shaped by national interests, are failing to address these challenges. Rising migration, coupled with domestic social pressure, risks undermining the EU’s credibility in upholding its human rights obligations. With all EU Member States affected to varying degrees and facing rising costs for security, crime prevention, and social services, the conditions for a common solution are clear.
The functioning of the EU’s asylum and visa systems highlights institutional challenges while simultaneously providing a strategic opportunity for coordinated action.
Asylum and visa procedures face significant challenges, including fragmented rules, inconsistent standards, slow processing, and poor coordination among EU Member States. This article analyzes these challenges and proposes three interrelated policy solutions for systemic reform. In this sense, their success depends on the willingness of Member States to compromise, align national interests with EU goals, and commit to genuine cooperation.
Even partial adoption of solutions would significantly improve the current state of affairs. Proposed solutions include: (1) harmonizing the legal framework through uniform legislation, (2) accelerating digital standardization through improved operational tools, and (3) strengthening cooperation through joint training and more efficient funding management.ReferencesAlipour, Nick, and Oliver Noyan. 2024. “Pressure to allow asylum processing in third countries mounts on Germany's Scholz.” Euractiv, June 21, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.euractiv.com/news/pressure-to-allow-asylum-processing-in-third-countries-mounts-on-germanys-scholz/.
Council of the European Union. 2003. Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national. OJ L 50, Febriary 25, 2003, pp. 1-10. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2003/343/oj.
Da Conceicao-Heldt, Eugénia. 2018. “European policy failure during the refugee crisis : partial empowerment, reluctant agents, a cacophony of voices, and unilateral action.” EUI RSCAS 36. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/56404.
EDPS. 2025. Migration management: data protection is one of the last lines of defence for vulnerable individuals, May 28, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.edps.europa.eu/press-publications/press-news/press-releases/2025/migration-management-data-protection-one-last-lines-defence-vulnerable-individuals_fr?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
EUAA. 2024. Case of alleged irregularities at EUAA officially closed, March 22, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://euaa.europa.eu/news-events/case-alleged-irregularities-euaa-officially-closed.
EUAA. 2024. EUAA statement of revenues and expenditures 2024, February 13, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.euaa.europa.eu/publications/euaa-statement-revenues-and-expenditures-2024.
European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication. 2024. Pact on migration and asylum – Fast and efficient procedures. Publications Office of the EU. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2775/242027.
European Communities. 1997. Convention determining the State responsible for examining applications for asylum lodged in one of the Member States of the European Communities - Dublin Convention. Official Journal C 254, August 19, 1997, pp. 1-12. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_1997_254_R_0001_01.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2011. Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 337, Decembner 20, 2011, pp. 9-26. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2011/95/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Directive 2013/32/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on common procedures for granting and withdrawing international protection (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 180, June 29, 2013, pp. 60-95. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2013/32/oj
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 180, June 29, 2013, pp. 96-116. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2013/33/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2013. Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person (recast). Official Journal of the European Union L 180, June 29, 2013, pp. 31-59. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/604/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2018. Regulation (EU) 2018/1240 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 September 2018 establishing a European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) and amending Regulations (EU) No 1077/2011, (EU) No 515/2014, (EU) 2016/399, (EU) 2016/1624 and (EU) 2017/2226. PE/21/2018/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L 236, 19.9.2018, pp. 1-71. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2018/1240/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2019. Regulation (EU) 2019/1155 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 amending Regulation (EC) No 810/2009 establishing a Community Code on Visas (Visa Code). PE/29/2019/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L 188, July 12, 2019, pp. 25-54. Accessed July 3, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1155/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2023. Regulation (EU) 2024/1348 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a common procedure for international protection in the Union and repealing Directive 2013/32/EU. PE/16/2024/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union 2024/1348, May 22, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1348/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024. Regulation (EU) 2024/1358 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of biometric data in order to effectively apply Regulations (EU) 2024/1351 and (EU) 2024/1350 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Directive 2001/55/EC and to identify illegally staying third-country nationals and stateless persons and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes, amending Regulations (EU) 2018/1240 and (EU) 2019/818 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EU) No 603/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council. PE/15/2024/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/1358, May 22, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1358/oj.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2024. Regulation (EU) 2024/1348 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a common procedure for international protection in the Union and repealing Directive 2013/32/EU. PE/16/2024/REV/1. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2024/1348, May 22, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1348/oj.
European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/activities/large-scale-it-systems.
European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice. 2024. Eurodac - Annual Report 2023 - Report, December 10, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/our-publications/eurodac-annual-report-2023-report.
Ewfrf. 2025. Germany Sees Surge in Asylum Cases Pending Before Courts, April 16, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://ewfrf.org/en/2025/04/16/5231/.
Human Rights Watch. 2024. “Hungary: Ukrainian refugees losing housing.” September 11, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/11/hungary-ukrainian-refugees-losing-housing.
International Investment. 2024. Asylum in the EU in 2024: Application statistics, policy changes and forecasts, April 24, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://internationalinvestment.biz/en/analytics/5614-asylum-in-the-eu-in-2024-application-statistics-policy-changes-and-forecasts.html.
Kohlenberger, Judith. 2024. Migration policy: EU increasingly outsources responsibility for asylum. October 15, 2024. Heinrich Böll Stiftung EU. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://eu.boell.org/en/2024/10/15/migration-policy-european-union-increasingly-outsources-responsibility-asylum.
Liboreiro, Jorge. 2024. “EU completes reform of migration rules despite Poland and Hungary voting against.” Euronews, May 14, 2024. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/05/14/eu-completes-reform-of-migration-rules-despite-poland-and-hungary-voting-against.
Liboreiro, Jorge. 2024. “EU completes reform of migration rules despite Poland and Hungary voting against.” Euronews, May 14, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/05/14/eu-completes-reform-of-migration-rules-despite-poland-and-hungary-voting-against.
Liboreiro, Jorge. 2025. “EU asylum requests down by 11% in 2024, but still exceed one million.” Euronews, March 3, 2025. Accessed July 3, 2025. https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/03/03/eu-asylum-requests-down-by-11-in-2024-but-still-exceed-one-million.
Moravcsik, Andrew. 1998. The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from: Messina to Maastricht. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press.
Riemer, Lena, Lea Rau, and Ronith Schalast. 2025. Country Report: Regular procedure: Germany. AIDA/ECRE Report, June 16, 2025. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://asylumineurope.org/reports/country/germany/asylum-procedure/procedures/regular-procedure/.
The Times. 2024. EU votes for €2bn reform of migrant laws, April 10, 2024. Accessed July 2, 2025. https://www.thetimes.com/world/article/eu-asylum-seekers-first-country-migration-m9lk75gcq.
Thielemann, Eiko R. 2003. “Between Interests and Norms: Explaining Burden‐Sharing in the European Union.” Journal of Refugee Studies 16 (3), September: 253–273. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/16.3.253.
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Comparative politics
The Effectiveness of Biosecurity Policy Regulation in China
AbstractThis article examines political science issues related to biological risks and biosecurity, which have acquired exceptional significance due to a number of global processes. The increasing frequency of pandemics, the rapid advancement of genetic engineering, and the potential threats posed by biological weapons underscore the relevance of this topic. In recent decades, the accelerated spread of pathogens and the resulting epidemics have become global challenges. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated society's vulnerability to biological risks, simultaneously highlighting the critical need for robust biosecurity systems. At the same time, against the backdrop of globalization and the deepening of international relations, the spread of pathogens from one region to another has become faster and more uncontrollable. Biological risks pose not only a threat to public health but can also cause economic damage, disrupt ecosystem stability, and even become a national security issue. Moreover, the unpredictable consequences of the potential use of biological weapons make this topic a subject of critical scientific and political debate. These circumstances require the development of innovative and modern approaches to the effective management and prevention of biological risks. Such approaches must integrate technological, scientific, and legal solutions aimed at ensuring biosecurity at both the global and local levels. In this regard, a comparative analysis of biological risks, their impact on public health, national security, and ecosystems, as well as modern approaches to ensuring biosecurity in China, are of particular importance.
ReferencesBiosecurity Law of the People's Republic of China (Adopted at the 22nd Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Thirteenth National People’s Congress on October 17, 2020). Accessed August 16, 2025. http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2020-10/17/c_703568.htm.
Cameron, Elizabeth E. 2017. “Emerging and converging global catastrophic biological risks.” Health Security 15 (4): 337-338. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2017.0043.
Cao, Cong. 2021. “China’s evolving biosafety/biosecurity legislations.” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 8 (1), January-June: lsab020. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab020.
China's GMO Regulations Overview, USDA, 2023. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://fas.usda.gov/data/china-revised-draft-measures-labeling-agricultural-gmos-published-comments.
Crowley, Michael, and Malcolm Dando. 2024. “Regulation of toxins and bioregulators under the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 6 (2), June: 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2024.03.003.
Delfosse, Ernest S. 2005. “Risk and ethics in biological control.” Biological Control 35 (3), December: 319-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.09.009.
Fang, Chen; Zhiqiang, Zhang; Chenjun, Ding; and Xiaoyan, Wu. 2020. “Analysis of Global Biosafety Strategy and Recommendations to China.” Bulletin of Chinese Academy 35 (2), Article 10.
Fuller, Thomas P. 2022. “Hazardous biological agents: risk assessment to risk control.” Safety and Health at Work 13: S81-S81.
Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://en.nhc.gov.cn/2019-03/05/c_74526.htm.
Liang, Huigang, Cui Huang, Xiaoli Zhu, and Zhiming Yuan. 2021. “Significance of and outlook for the Biosecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 3 (1), June: 46-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2021.06.004.
Lindahl, Johanna Frida and Delia Grace. 2015. “The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: a review.” Infection Ecology & Epidemiology 5.
Liu, Shu-Sheng, Asha Rao, and S. Bradleigh Vinson. 2014. “Biological Control in China: Past, present and future – An introduction to this special issue.” Biological Control (68), January: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2013.05.005.
Min, Kaiyuan, Yi Zhang, Jiangfeng Liu et al. 2025. “China’s biosafety/biosecurity governance: evolution, challenges, and architecture design.” Frontiers of Medicine 19: 871-878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-025-1158-y.
Qin, Qin, and Youhai Sun. 2019. “A Global Biosafety Strategy Research Framework with Specific Implications for China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 1 (2): 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2019.08.006.
Sun, Tao, Jie Song, Meng Wang, Chao Zhao, and Weiwen Zhang. 2022. “Challenges and recent progress in the governance of biosecurity risks in the era of synthetic biology.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 4 (1), June: 59-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2022.02.002.
Wang, Xiaoli. 2020. “Enhancing the National Biosecurity System in China amidst COVID-19 Epidemic.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 2 (1): 3-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2020.03.002.
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Wu, Guizhen. 2019. “Laboratory biosafety in China: past, present, and future.” Biosafety and Health 1 (2), September: 56-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsheal.2019.10.003.
Yassif, Jaime M. 2017. “Reducing Global Catastrophic Biological Risks.” Health Security 15 (4): 329-330. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2017.0049.
Yassif, Jaime M., Shayna Korol, and Angela Kane. 2023. “Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.” Health Security 21 (4): 258-265. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2022.0145.
Zhang, Yu, Jia Lu, Fang Zhang et al. 2023. “Biosafety management in high-biosafety-risk workshops for vaccine production in China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 5 (4), December: 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2023.11.002.
Regional Policy
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Regional Policy
Restructuring and its Nexus with National Security and Development Management in Nigeria: An African Policy
AbstractThis article analyzes the fundamental conditions governing national security and development management in Nigeria. In this regard, it takes into account the specifics of Nigeria's political history during the colonial era and the unification of the Northern and Southern Protectorates. This paper attempts to determine whether current calls for restructuring in Nigeria, despite the objections of some groups, will provide a bright future for the country. Restructuring is examined in terms of granting states greater power than the federal government, as well as in terms of resource control and the creation of state police forces.
Nigeria's security is challenged on a number of fronts, including the inability to feed itself, ensure economic growth and decent living conditions for the majority of the population, and protect itself from external aggression and internal conflict. All of this is exacerbated by an underdeveloped scientific and technological base, as well as inadequate governance. Despite the country's abundant natural resources, they are either underutilized or under the control of international economic entities that are primarily concerned with their own financial well-being rather than the well-being of local residents. Globalization brings with it problems such as the illegal exploitation of human and natural resources, unrestrained by any international norms, the infiltration and active operation of international organized crime groups, amidst weak legal protections for citizens and pervasive corruption, which also poses one of the main threats to Nigeria's national security.
The article concludes that modern Nigeria is in dire need of patriotic leaders who could strategically lead the country toward sustainable development.ReferencesAdeakin, Ibikunle, and Simon Gray. 2019. “Nigeria’s Shi’a Islamic Movement and Evolving Islamist Threat Landscape: Old, New and Future Generators of Radicalization.” African Security 12 (2): 174-199.
Aiyede, E. Remi. 2013. “Elite Competition, Institutional Change, and Political Responsibility.” In: Democracy and Prebendalism in Nigeria: Critical Interpretations, edited by Wale Adebanwi, and Ebenezer Obadare, 103-120. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137280770_5.
Akanji, Olajide O. 2011. “‘The Problem of Belonging’: The Identity Question and the Dilemma of Nation-Building in Nigeria.” African Identities 9 (2): 117–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2011.556788.
Amaechi, Chidi M., and Obinna U. Muoh, 2017. “Constitution Building as a Panacea to Identity Conflicts in Africa: The Case of Nigeria.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 8 (4): 17-26.
Amali, Sadiq Ewaoda, and M. W. Buthelezi. 2025. “Managing the proliferation of small arms and light weapons for Nigeria’s national security.” Discover Global Society 3, 28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-025-00166-9.
Botha, Sven. 2021. “The Women and Girls Associated with Boko Haram: How Has the Nigerian Government Responded?” South African Journal of International Affairs 28 (2): 263-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2021.1927167.
Egwim, Ambrose Ihekwoaba. 2026. “7: Nigerian federalism: political economy, petroleum, and state fragility.” In: Federalism in a Turbulent Era, edited by Nicholas Aroney, and Renato Costa, 152-176. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035321582.00013.
Fagbadebo, Omololu. 2025. “Institutions and the Crisis of Governance in Nigeria.” In: Political Governance and the African Peer Review Mechanism: A Comparative Analysis, edited by Omololu Fagbadebo, and Isioma U. Ile, 247-261. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-85911-3_13.
Faluyi, Olumuyiwa Temitope. 2023a. Federalism and Plurality Unpacked. In: National Integration and Rotational Presidency in Nigeria. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 29-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41241-7_2.
Faluyi, Olumuyiwa Temitope. 2023b. National Integration in Perspective. In: National Integration and Rotational Presidency in Nigeria. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 67-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41241-7_3.
Fashagba, Joseph Olayinka. 2015. “Subnational Legislatures and National Governing Institutions in Nigeria, 1999-2013.” In: African State Governance: Subnational Politics and National Power, edited by A. Carl LeVan, Joseph Olayinka Fashagba, and Edward R. McMahon, 93–119. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137523341_4.
Hassan, Idayat, and Benson Chinedu Olugbuo. 2016. “Boko Haram’s Insurgency in Nigeria: Exploring the Justice, Peace and Reconciliation Pathways.” In: The International Criminal Court and Africa: One Decade On, edited by Evelyn A. Ankumah, 419-432. Intersentia.
Ikpebe, Ene, Emily Boykin, Alex Osei-Kojo, and Bukola Usidame Peters. 2026. “An advocacy coalition framework analysis of local government autonomy in Nigeria.” Policy Sciences 59, 417-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-026-09608-w.
Mariotti, Sergio, and Sergio Meacci. 2026. “Africa in the global economy: development challenges and investment opportunities for Europe.” Journal of Industrial and Business Economics 53: 115–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40812-025-00377-w.
Momoh, Abubakar, and Said Adejumobi. 2017. The National Question in Nigeria: Comparative Perspectives. Routledge.
Onapajo, Hakeem. 2026. “Child Soldiers of Boko Haram: Why (and How) Children Join Armed Groups in Northeastern Nigeria.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 61(2): 1686-1702. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251318237.
Onwudiwe, Ebere. 1999, “On the Sovereign National Conference.” A Journal of Opinion 27 (1): 66-68. https://doi.org/10.2307/1167010.
Pally, Agidi Ejime. 2021. “Restructuring, National Security and Nigeria’s Relationship With the External World”. UJAH: Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities 21 (4): 34-52. https://doi.org/10.4314/ujah.v21i4.2.
Sule, Babayo, Usman Sambo, Abdulkadir Ahmed, and Muhammad Yusuf. 2021. “Nigerian Civil Society Situation Room (NCSSR) and Electioneering Process in Nigeria (2015–2019).” Sage Open 11 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211006708.
Titus, Utibe Monday, and Ilufoye Sarafa Ogundiya. 2025. “The National Question and Nigeria’s Ethnic and Identity Crises.” African Identities 23 (2): 415-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725843.2023.2265574.
Uzoagba, Chidiebele E. J., Edmund Chijioke Okoroigwe, and Azikiwe Peter Onwualu. 2026. “Sustainable engineering solutions for achieving resilient food security in Nigeria.” Discover Agriculture 4, 103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00385-3.
Vinson, Laura Thaut. 2017. “Tenuous Unity: Federalism, Local Governments, and Politics in Nigeria.” Chapter. In Religion, Violence, and Local Power-Sharing in Nigeria, 41-83. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Regional Policy
Towards an African Solution-Oriented Approach to Conflict Analysis in African Peace and Security (2002-2022)
AbstractThis paper proposes an AfSol-oriented (African Solutions) approach to conflict analysis in Africa's peace and security sphere, focusing on the period between 2002 and 2022. As Africa grapples with numerous internal and external challenges to peace and stability, it becomes imperative to examine the roles, perspectives, and interactions of all stakeholders involved in resolving conflicts across the continent. An AfSol-oriented approach calls for a shift from externally driven solutions to locally led, context-specific initiatives that promote sustainable peace and security. The study identifies the key stakeholders involved in Africa's peace and security processes, including regional organizations, national governments, non-state actors, civil society, and international partners. By examining their respective roles, motivations, and capabilities, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate web of interactions among these actors. Furthermore, the paper highlights the importance of promoting inclusivity and local ownership in conflict resolution strategies. It argues that genuine and lasting peace can only be achieved when the affected communities actively participate in shaping the solutions to their problems. The AfSol-oriented approach emphasizes the need to prioritize local knowledge, cultural practices, and traditional conflict resolution mechanisms, while also complementing them with modern strategies and international support.
ReferencesAbegunrin, Olayiwola. 2009. From Organization of African Unity to African Union. In: Africa in Global Politics in the Twenty-First Century: A Pan-African Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 141-172. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230623903_8.
Abrahamsen, Rita. 2013. “Introduction: Conflict & Security in Africa.” In: Conflict and Security in Africa, edited by Rita Abrahamsen, 1-12. ROAPE African Readers. Boydell & Brewer.
Adams, Adeola, and Chux Gervase Iwu. 2015. “Conflict resolution: Understanding concepts and issues in conflict prevention, management, and transformation.” Corporate Ownership and Control 12 (4-4): 431-439. https://doi.org/10.22495/cocv12i4c4p1.
Addison, Tony. 2001. “Reconstruction from War in Africa: Communities, Entrepreneurs, and States,” WIDER Working Paper Series DP2001-18. Accessed April 13, 2026. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2528145.
Adekanye, J. ’Bayo. 2007. Linking Conflict Diagnosis, Conflict Prevention, and Conflict Management in Contemporary Africa: Selected Essays. Lagos, Nigeria, Ibadan: Ababa Press Ltd.; Centre for Gender, Governance and Development.
Adem, Seifudein. 2004. “Cultures of Political Recycling and Conflict Resolution in Japan: Any Lessons for Africa?” African and Asian Studies 3 (1): 3-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15692108-00301002
Akiba, Okon. 2020. Making and Enforcing Peace Through Mediation and Fire Power: A Retrospective on the Liberia Experience. In: Preventive Diplomacy, Security, and Human Rights in West Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 175-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25354-7_6.
Akinola, Adeoye O., and Ufo Okeke Uzodike. 2017. “Ubuntu and the Quest for Conflict Resolution in Africa.” Journal of Black Studies 49 (2): 91-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021934717736186
Amaglo-Mensah, Timothy Dziedzom, and Yulia Nesterova. 2025. “Searching for peace and nonviolence in the national curriculum of Ghana.” Prospects. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-025-09747-7.
Amoah, Michael. 2025. Decolonizing Collaboration: Africa’s South-South Collaborations. In: Decolonizing African Politics: Bridging the Contours of Debate. Springer, Cham, pp. 117-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-89218-9_8.
Anyang' Nyong'o, Peter. 1998. “Governance, Security and Conflict Resolution in Africa.” Diogenes 46 (184): 129-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/039219219804618413
Apuuli, Kasaija Phillip. 2020. “The African Union and Peacekeeping in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.” Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 20 (4): 667-677. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2020-20-4-667-677
Baker, Pauline H. 2009. “Review of Identity, Diversity, and Constitutionalism in Africa.” Human Rights Quarterly 31 (4): 1139-1143. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hrq.0.0101.
Brewer, Cecily G. 2011. “Peril by Proxy: Negotiating Conflicts in East Africa.” International Negotiation 16 (1): 137-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180611x553908
Ceesay, Almamo, and Sulikah Asmorowati. 2026. “Beyond the Peace Agreement: Institutional Weakness and Governance Challenges in Post-Conflict South Sudan.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 61(4): 3406-3423. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251376658.
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Public Policy
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Public Policy
Strategic Diversification of China’s Foreign Policy in Africa: The Belt and Road Initiative and the Transformation of China’s Public Diplomacy in Nigeria
AbstractThis article examines the strategic diversification of China’s foreign policy in Africa and its operationalization in Nigeria, the continent’s largest economy and most populous market. It asks how China converts economic engagement - trade, investment, infrastructure, and development assistance - into longer-term political and normative influence, and treats soft power and public diplomacy as analytical instruments rather than descriptive labels. Drawing on a qualitative case study and descriptive data from authoritative sources (SAIS-CARI, UNCTAD, the World Bank, FOCAC documents, and Nigeria’s National Bureau of Statistics), the article argues that China’s leverage rests on a diversified, bundled model in which infrastructure finance, market access, technical standards, and cultural and digital cooperation are deployed jointly and reinforced through FOCAC and the Belt and Road Initiative. The findings show deepening but asymmetric ties: a persistent Nigerian trade deficit and hydrocarbon-concentrated exports alongside Chinese dominance of manufactured imports and infrastructure contracts. The article contributes a disaggregated, instrument-level account that distinguishes the continental, Sub-Saharan, and bilateral levels of China’s African engagement.
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Razzaq, Tayyaba. 2025. “China’s Economic Expansion: Soft Power Play Through SEZs, BRI, and BRICS.” In: China's Globalisation and the New World Order, edited by Najimdeen Bakare, and Adam Saud, 159-181. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-3716-4_8.
State Council of the People’s Republic of China. 2026. “China Implements Historic Zero Tariffs for All African Nations with Diplomatic Ties.” The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, May 1, 2026. https://english.www.gov.cn/policies/policywatch/202605/01/content_WS69f45e35c6d00ca5f9a0ac01.html.
Udeogu, Celestine Uchechukwu. 2025. “Political economy of the US-OPEC tussle in the global oil market: understanding Nigeria’s revenue and debt crises.” International Politics. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-025-00711-y.
van Eekelen, Willem. 2016. Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. In: Indian Foreign Policy and the Border Dispute with China: A New Look at Asian Relationships. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, pp. 53-64. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004304314_005.
Writer, Staff. 2023. “China delivers major infrastructure projects in Nigeria: Key projects include Lekki Deep Sea Port and Lagos Rail Mass Transit project.” Zawya, February 2, 2023. Accessed April 7, 2026. https://www.zawya.com/en/projects/bri/china-delivers-major-infrastructure-projects-in-nigeria-elj6dv3l/
Yang, Manling. 2026. “Framing of Development Policies toward Africa: A Comparative Study of China and the European Union.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 67 (1): 23-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2024.2361776.
Yigit, Sureyya. 2024. China–Africa Multifaceted Collaboration. In: China-Africa Science, Technology and Innovation Collaboration, edited by Mammo Muchie, Angathevar Baskaran, and Mingfeng Tang, 351-369. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-4576-0_19.
Yin, Huanhuan, Zahiruddin Fitri Abu Hassan, and Syahrul Nizam Kamaruzzaman. 2025. “Research on the Policies of Prefabricated Construction Challenges in China: A Systematic Literature Review.” Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, May: 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2025.2506466.
You, Zhuran, and Yingzi Hu. 2026. The Unity of Heaven and Humanity: On the Origin of Moral Cultivation. In: PPhilosophy and Civilization: How the Idea of Moral Cultivation Shaped China. Springer, Singapore, pp. 27-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-5660-1_2.
Zhang, Jun. 2014. “Global Economic Crisis and the ‘Spatial Fix’ of China’s World Factory: The Great ‘Long March’ Inland.” In: Global Economic Crisis and the Politics of Diversity, edited by Yıldız Atasoy, 132-154. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137293688_6.
Zhang, Kevin Honglin. 2022. “Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Its Motivations, Determinants, and Impact on the African Economies.” In: The Palgrave Handbook of Africa’s Economic Sectors, edited by Evelyn F. Wamboye, and Bichaka Fayissa, 603-624. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75556-0_23.
Zhu, Keren, Keya Zhou, and William Brockman. 2026. “Contesting China in Africa: US think tank narratives, 2005-2025.” China International Strategy Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42533-026-00212-4.
Züfle, Simon, Philipp von Carlowitz, and Jörg Büechl. 2024. “China in Africa: Companies as Enablers and Beneficiaries? An Empirical Evaluation of State-Business Relations in the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.” Business and Politics 26 (4): 573-597. https://doi.org/10.1017/bap.2024.13.
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Public Policy
John Rawls and the Pursuit of Social Justice in Contemporary Nigeria: A Philosophical Study
AbstractThis article examines the potential application of John Rawls's theory of justice as fairness to the contemporary sociopolitical situation in Nigeria. With a population of over 235 million people representing diverse ethnic and religious groups, Nigeria faces significant challenges in achieving social justice, including widespread inequality, systemic corruption, ethnic tensions, and inadequate resource allocation. Drawing on a philosophical analysis informed by Rawlsian principles, this article explores how concepts such as the original position, the veil of ignorance, and the difference principle can help Nigeria overcome long-standing problems of governance and equality. Using critical analysis and theoretical application, the study demonstrates that while Rawls's framework has the potential to transform Nigeria, its implementation faces significant practical challenges, including deep-rooted corruption, systems of ethnic patronage, and historical inequalities. This article offers recommendations for adapting Rawls's theory of justice to the Nigerian context, focusing on institutional reforms, equitable resource distribution, and inclusive governance. Combining political philosophy with practical governance strategies, this analysis contributes to ongoing debates about social justice, democratic consolidation, and sustainable development in Africa's most populous country.
ReferencesEdogiawerie, Morris K. O., and Innocent O. Ekuase. 2021. “An examination of Rawls’ social justice model: an its implications for contemporary Nigeria.” Wukari International Studies Journal 5 (1): 66-79.
John, Elijah Okon. 2014. “A Critique of John Rawls’ Social Justice Theory and the Fate of Nigeria’s Politics in the 21st-Century and Beyond.” Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization 28: 12-20.
Kachembere, Taurai. 2026. “Rawlsian Ubuntucracy and the Prospect for a Political Philosophy for Failed African States.” Politikon 53 (1): 21-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2026.2643419.
Mathis, Klaus, and Deborah Shannon. 2009. John Rawls’s Theory of Justice. In: Efficiency Instead of Justice?: Searching for the Philosophical Foundations of the Economic Analysis of Law. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 121-139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9798-0_7.
Obienyem, Valentine, and Charles Nweke. 2025. “John Rawls’ Theory of Justice: Relevance to Nigeria Ethno-Religious Challenges.” Advances in Law, Pedagogy, and Multidisciplinary Humanities 2 (2): 203-214. https://jurnal.fs.umi.ac.id/index.php/alpamet/article/view/862.
Okaneme, Godwin. 2020. “John Rawls’ Theory of Justice and its relevance to Contemporary Nigerian Democracy: A Philosophical Appraisal.” AJAP - AMAMIHE Journal of Applied Philosophy 18 (5): 125-146.
Orji, Chidi Paul. 2023. “John Rawls’ Theory of Social Justice and its Philosophical relevance to Nigeria’s Political Stability.” AJAP - AMAMIHE Journal of Applied Philosophy 21 (4): 81-92.
Orji, Chidi Paul. 2025. “The Ethical Principles of John Rawls as a Tool for Social Justice and Peace in Contemporary Society.” Socialscientia: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 10 (1). https://journals.aphriapub.com/index.php/SS/article/view/3181.
Plott, Charles R. 1978. “Rawls’s Theory of Justice: An Impossibility Result.” In: Decision Theory and Social Ethics: Issues in Social Choice, edited by Hans W. Gottinger, and Werner Leinfellner, 201-214. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-9838-4_10.
Richman, Buwokuromo I. 2022. “An Examination of the ‘Difference Principle’ In John Rawls’ Theory Of Justice: A Case For Egalitarian Society In Nigeria.” Otuoke Journal of Social Sciences 2 (2): 55-67. https://journals.fuotuoke.edu.ng/index.php/ojss/article/view/45.
Roberts-Cady, Sarah. 2025. “Rawls and Economic Liberties.” Res Publica 31: 25-45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-024-09668-w.
Sari, Cut Maya Aprita. 2020. “Rawls’s Theory of Justice and Its Relevance in Analyzing Injustice on Ethnic Phenomenon.” Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 7 (3): 210-218. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48710267.
Smith, Paul. 2008. John Rawls’s Theory of Justice. In: Moral and Political Philosophy: Key Issues, Concepts and Theories. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 185-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-59394-7_12.
Teays, Wanda. 2025. John Rawls: On Justice. In: Solitary Confinement: Philosophical Perspectives. Springer, Cham, pp. 91-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-96566-1_8.
Yusuf, Musa Yusuf, and Mansur Sulaiman Shugaba. 2024. “Contextualizing John Rawl’s theory of social justice in Nigeria’s democracy.” Journal of Political Discourse 2(2(2): 220-229. https://jopd.com.ng/index.php/jopdz/article/view/169.
Security Policy
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Security Policy
Risks of Military Confrontation in the South Caucasus in the Context of Geopolitical Transformations
AbstractThis article examines the key issues surrounding the formation of new military-political platforms in the South Caucasus region, which have influenced the shifting balance of power and the regional security agenda. Key issues discussed include the new military-based cooperation existing in the region and the potential geopolitical implications it may have. One thing is certain: the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, and subsequently the 2020 war, is impacting regional military cooperation. Therefore, it is imperative to examine a variety of new scenarios and current dynamics. The South Caucasus remains a strategically important yet volatile region, where military cooperation and security dynamics are shaped by evolving geopolitical developments. This article analyzes the military strategies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, examining their evolving defense strategies, alliances, and regional security interactions using balance-of-power theory and regional security complex theory. This study contributes to an understanding of how small states in contested regions adapt their military strategies in response to emerging geopolitical realities. In this context, regional stability presupposes a joint determination of common threats to national security, the possibilities and limits of joint efforts to achieve certain political goals, and ways to ensure peace and security in the South Caucasus.
ReferencesAleksanyan, Ashot. 2025. “Russlands hybrider Einfluss auf die europäische Integration Armeniens durch den 44-Tage-Krieg: Lehren für Armenien.” In: Russische Schockwellen: Der Krieg in der Ukraine und die Lage in den angrenzenden Regionen, Herausgegeben von Olaf Leiße, 219-235. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-46812-5_11.
Amable, Dennis Senam. 2022. “Theorizing the Emergence of Security Regions: An Adaptation for the Regional Security Complex Theory.” Global Studies Quarterly 2 (4), October, ksac065. https://doi.org/10.1093/isagsq/ksac065.
Amoris, Louise. 2026. Armenia at the Crossroads and Beyond the EU and Russia. In: Living in the Split: The Agency of Armenia and Georgia In-Between Russia and the EU. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, pp. 237-312. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-06577-3_6.
Asgarov, Sirus. 2026. “Comparative Lessons from Turkey-Israel and Syria Relations: A Neorealist and Game Theory Approach.” Israel Affairs (January): 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2611818.
Avdaliani, Emil. 2022a. Shifting Global Balance of Power and the South Caucasus. In: New World Order and Small Regions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 17-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4037-8_2.
Avdaliani, Emil. 2022b. From Central Asia to the Black Sea: China and the South Caucasus. In: New World Order and Small Regions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore, pp. 165-190. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4037-8_6.
Babayev, Azer, and Hans-Joachim Spanger. 2020. “A Way Out for Nagorno-Karabakh: Autonomy, Secession—or What Else?.” In: The Nagorno-Karabakh deadlock: Insights from successful conflict settlements, edited by Azer Babayev, Bruno Schoch, and Hans-Joachim Spanger, 277-320. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25199-4_14.
Babayev, Azer. 2020. “Nagorno-Karabakh: The Genesis and Dynamics of the Conflict.” In: The Nagorno-Karabakh deadlock: Insights from successful conflict settlements, edited by Azer Babayev, Bruno Schoch, and Hans-Joachim Spanger, 17-38. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25199-4_2.
Balian, Hrair. 2026. U.S./EU Mediation-Nagorno-Karabakh’s Demise (2021-2025). In: Anatomy of Peacemaking: Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict & Missed Opportunities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 307-360. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-12490-6_6.
Balta, Evren, and Hatice Betül Bal. 2026. “How do middle powers act? Turkey’s foreign policy and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.” International Politics 63: 161-183. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-025-00679-9.
Bashirova, Aynur. 2024. “Evolution of Strategic Relations Between Azerbaijan and Israel During the Heydar Aliyev Period.” In: Heydar Aliyev and the Foundations of Modern Azerbaijan, edited by M. Hakan Yavuz, Michael M. Gunter, and Shamkhal Abilov, 253-278. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58265-3_10.
Buzan, Barry, and Ole Wæver. 2003. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. of Cambridge Studies in International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Buzan, Barry. 2003. “Regional Security Complex Theory in the Post-Cold War World.” In: Theories of New Regionalism: A Palgrave Macmillan Reader, edited by Fredrik Söderbaum, and Timothy M. Shaw, 140-159. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403938794_8.
Cheterian, Vicken. 2024. “Technological Determinism or Strategic Advantage? Comparing the Two Karabakh Wars between Armenia and Azerbaijan.” Journal of Strategic Studies 47 (2): 214-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2022.2127093.
Cohen, Ronen A., and Tzvi Lev. 2023. “Azerbaijan’s State Building Power as a Reflection of Israel–Iran Hostility.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 50 (1): 107–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2021.1937516.
Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2026. “New Actors in Arms Procurement in the South Caucasus: The Azerbaijan–Armenia Arms Race after the Dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261416945.
Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2026. “New Actors in Arms Procurement in the South Caucasus: The Azerbaijan-Armenia Arms Race after the Dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261416945.
Freedman, Robert O. 2023. “Moscow and Jerusalem: A Troubled 75-Year Relationship.” Israel Affairs 29 (3): 492-511. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2023.2206211.
Gülseven, Enver. 2024. “Ontological Security-Seeking in Turkish-Israeli Relations: Prospects and Challenges of Normalisation.” Israel Affairs 30 (1): 125-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2024.2295620.
Hovsepyan, Levon, and Artyom A. Tonoyan. 2024. “From alliance to ‘soft conquest’: the anatomy of the Turkish-Azerbaijani military alliance before and after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war.” Small Wars and Insurgencies 35 (4): 622-655. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2312957.
Ismayilov, Elnur. 2013. “Israel and Azerbaijan: The Evolution of a Strategic Partnership.” Israel Journal of foreign Affairs VII: 1. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2535158.
Kalbizada, Elnur Hashim, and Eldar Arif Jafarov. 2025. “Israel-Georgia Relations: Factors and Stages.” Israel Affairs 31 (2): 230-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2469451.
Kumar, Mukesh. 2024. Pakistan’s JF-17 Sales to Azerbaijan and Wider Implications.” Indian Council of World Affairs, October 23, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=3&ls_id=11965&lid=7255.
Lakshminarayanan, Radhika, and Tigran Yepremyan. 2023. “Armenia-India partnership: geopolitical and geo-economic implications in the Eurasian context.” Asia Europe Journal 21: 81-100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-023-00665-x.
Manukyan, Zhak. 2024. “Russia’s Foreign Policy in the South Caucasus in the Context of Increasing New Regional Competition.” Journal of Political Science: Bulletin of Yerevan University 3 (2(8): 28-41. https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2024.3.8.028.
Meister, Stefan. 2024. “Comprehensive Security in the Wider Black Sea Region: The Connection with the South Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.” In: Security Dynamics in the Black Sea Region Geopolitical Shifts and Regional Orders, edited by Kornely Kakachia, Stephan Malerius, and Stefan Meister, 191-204. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-62957-0_15.
Melikyan, Siranush. 2024. “Fast-tracking Armenia-India military cooperation.” ORF, May 17, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/fast-tracking-armenia-india-military-cooperation.
Ministry of Defence of Georgia. 2021. “Cyber Security Strategy 2021-2024.” Accessed April 16, 2026. https://mod.gov.ge/uploads/Cyber_Security/Cyber_Security_Strategy_of_the_Ministry_of_Defence_of_Georgia_2021-2024“.pdf.
Mumtaz, Saima. 2023. “Role of Pakistan in Azerbaijan-Armenia War and its implications for South Asia.” Dinkum Journal of Social Innovations 2 (10): 598-608.
Neset, Siri, Mustafa Aydin, Ayça Ergun, Richard Giragosian, Kornely Kakachia, and Arne Strand. 2023. Changing Geopolitics of the South Caucasus after the Second Karabakh War. Prospect for Regional Cooperation and/or Rivalry. Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI Report 4).
Omidi, Ali. 2025. “Azerbaijan’s Relations with Israel: Classic Alliance, Strategic Partnership, or Marriage of Convenience.” Israel Affairs 31 (1): 9-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2444042.
Öztiğ, Laçin Idil. 2023. “A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Foreign Policy on the Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflicts (1988-2020).” Insight Turkey 25 (2): 139-162. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48732438.
Poghosyan, Tevan, and Arpine Martirosyan. 2013. “What the People Think: Key Findings and Observations of a Town Hall Meeting Project in Azerbaijan, Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh.” In: Europe’s Next Avoidable War: Nagorno-Karabakh, edited by Michael Kambeck, and Sargis Ghazaryan, 69-77. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137030009_7.
Shahbazov, Fuad. 2026. “Azerbaijan’s Pragmatism: Navigating Foreign Policy in a Fragmented World.” In: Emerging Partners of Central Asia: Engagement of Small and Middle Powers, edited by Mehmet Fatih Oztarsu, and Bongchul Kim, 165-183. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-10499-1_7.
Sharova, Natalia, and Ronen A. Cohen. 2025. “The Quest for Regional Leadership: Constructed Revisionism and Türkiye’s South Caucasus Policy (2002-2024).” Journal of Asian and African Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251380754.
Sharova, Natalia, and Ronen A. Cohen. 2026. “The Pillars of Türkiye’s Constructed Revisionist Vision of the South Caucasus Policy, 2002-2024.” Cogent Arts & Humanities 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2026.2631310.
Souleimanov, Emil, Maya Ehrmann, and Huseyn Aliyev. 2014. “Focused on Iran? Exploring the Rationale behind the Strategic Relationship between Azerbaijan and Israel.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 14 (4): 471-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2014.967945.
Stivachtis, Yannis A. 2021. “A Mediterranean region? Regional security complex theory revisited.” Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 21 (3): 416-428.
Sukiasyan, Narek, and Erik Davtyan. 2025. “The South Caucasus Reconstructed: Polarity and Regional Security Order after the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020.” The International Spectator 60 (4): 120-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2025.2500407.
The Armenian Report. 2023. “Armenia and France Sign Historic Agreement Enhancing Their Military Defense and Security Ties.” October 22, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.thearmenianreport.com/post/armenia-and-france-sign-historic-agreement-enhancing-their-military-defense-and-security-ties?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
The Prime Minister of the RA. 2026. “Press releases: Armenia and France sign joint declaration on establishing strategic partnership, exchange several documents.” May 5, 2026. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.primeminister.am/en/press-release/item/2026/05/05/Nikol-Pashinyan-Emmanuel-Macron-Declaration/.
U.S. Department of State. 2019. “Joint Statement of the U.S.-Georgia Security Working Group.” Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://2021-2025.state.gov/joint-statement-of-the-u-s-georgia-security-working-group/.
Vasilyan, Syuzanna. 2023. “Armenia as a Small State: Affected by the Arms Race Among Middle and Great Powers in the Middle East.” In: The Arms Race in the Middle East: Contemporary Security Dynamics, edited by Mohammad Eslami, and Alena Vysotskaya Guedes Vieira, 359-374. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32432-1_22.
Vasilyan, Syuzanna. 2026. “Armenia’s Policy ‘Twist’ to Cumbersome Tactical ‘Hedging’.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261442870.
Walsh, Barney. 2020. “Revisiting Regional Security Complex Theory in Africa: Museveni’s Uganda and Regional Security in East Africa.” African Security 13 (4): 300-324. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2021.1873507.
Yemelianova, Galina M. 2023. “Turkey, the Karabakh Conflict and the Legacy of the Eastern Question.” Caucasus Survey 12 (1): 73-102. https://doi.org/10.30965/23761202-bja10020.
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Security Policy
Rethinking the Sharing of Challenges in Allied Relations: Indicators for Assessing Relations in the Dynamics of Armenian-Russian Military Cooperation
AbstractThis article analyzes the main trends in rethinking challenges in the dynamics of Armenian-Russian military cooperation. In this regard, it comparatively examines how alliances have played a key role throughout the history of international relations, from the Peloponnesian Wars to modern times. As alliances of states formed both for collective defense and to project influence through pooled resources in relation to other alliances and international systems, alliances have continually faced a range of internal and external challenges. These challenges have primarily been related to the level of mutual trust between member states, the degree to which their interests coincide, and the fulfillment—or non-fulfillment—of mutual commitments. This problem has become particularly acute in the 21st century, when formally concluded alliance treaties have not always been fully implemented in practice; that is, alliances created through mutual assistance agreements have not always functioned effectively. In this context, it is crucial to identify, systematize, and analyze the indicators and variables that determine the willingness of bilateral or multilateral state alliances with formally signed treaties to provide mutual support in real-world political and military situations. From this perspective, this article particularly examines and evaluates the structure, nature, and viability of the formal alliance between Armenia and Russia in the new realities of contemporary international relations.
ReferencesAbrahamyan, Eduard. 2025. “Russia Reengages with Armenia (and Azerbaijan).” The Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, November 6, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13900-russia-reengages-with-armenia-and-azerbaijan.html.
Armenia Today. 2022. “Armenia is the only country that voted against the decision to expel Russia from the Council of Europe.” February 26, 2022. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armeniatoday.am/hy/world-2/431754/ (In Armenian).
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ARMENPRESS. 2023. “Armenia to host Eagle Partner 2023 joint military exercise with United States.” September 6, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1118856.
ARMENPRESS. 2024. “Joint Armenian-American exercises “Eagle Partner 2024” begin in Armenia.” July 15, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1195755?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
ARMENPRESS. 2025. “Armenia participates in Combined Resolve military exercises with U.S.” February 3, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1211009?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
Barabanov, Oleg. 2025. “How UN General Assembly Voted on Resolutions Concerning Russia and Iran in December 2025.” Valdai Club Foundation, December 31, 2025. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/how-un-general-assembly-voted-on-resolutions-conce/.
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Bergsmann, Stefan. 2001. “The Concept of Military Alliance.” In: Small States and Alliances, edited by Erich Reiter, and Heinz Gärtner, 25-37. Physica, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-13000-1_4.
Booth, Ken. 2021. “The Evolution of Strategic Thinking.” In: Contemporary Strategy: Theories and Policies, eduted by John Baylis, Ken Booth, John Garnett, and Phil Williams, 22-49. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003104339.
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CIVILNET. 2024. “What weapons have Armenia and Azerbaijan bought since the 2020 war?” April 1, 2024. Accessed April 16, 2026. https://civilnet.am/en/news/770063.
Crawford, Timothy W. 2024. “Dark corners of alliance politics: alliance theory concepts and great power competition.” International Politics. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-024-00626-0.
Crescenzi, Mark J. C., Jacob D. Kathman, Katja B. Kleinberg, and Reed Wood. 2012. “Reliability, Reputation, and Alliance Formation.” International Studies Quarterly 56 (2): 259-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00711.x.
Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2025. “Great powers, the arming of non-state groups, and the prolongation of armed conflicts in the Middle East.” Asian Review of Political Economy 4 (4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44216-025-00046-8.
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Deni, John R. 2025. “NATO after 2/22: A revitalized alliance?.” Journal of Transatlantic Studies 23: 228-248. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42738-025-00146-6.
Downs, George W., David M. Rocke, and Peter N. Barsoom. 1996. “Is the Good News about Compliance Good News about Cooperation?” International Organization 50 (3): 379-406. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818300033427.
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Book Review
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Book Review
Israel, Jonathan I. 2023. Spinoza, Life and Legacy. Oxford University Press, Oxford
AbstractThis book analyzes the life and legacy of the world-renowned Dutch philosopher Benedict Spinoza, taking into account that some of Spinoza's ideas are continually revived to serve as either the subject of criticism or the source material for the creation of new concepts, thus serving philosophy at every stage of its development. Such fruits of philosophical research subsequently serve science as such. Spinoza is one of the thinkers whose work remains noteworthy today, as his understanding of the world represents a complex interweaving of ontological and epistemological ideas, within the context of which a corresponding human figure, with its soul, body, and social being, is precisely defined. In developing this system, the philosopher often addresses questions that are the most problematic for philosophical science, questions that pit researchers from different fields and even scientific disciplines against each other. In addition to the key philosophical problems, Spinoza’s theory contains other, less fundamental but no less significant issues. The interpretation of God, the search for the optimal method of cognition—all these aspects of Spinoza's theory—have been subject to both serious criticism and support. In both cases, Spinoza's views stimulate scholars to think.
ReferencesGullan-Whur, Margaret. 1998. Within reason: a life of Spinoza. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
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Negri, Antonio. 1991. The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza’s Metaphysics and Politics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Robert, Jean-Dominique. 1968. Martial Gueroult, Spinoza, t. I: Dieu (Éthique, 1). Paris, Aubier-Montaigne.
Russell, Bertrand. 1945. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Smith, A. D. 2014. “Spinoza, Gueroult, and Substance.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 88 (3): 655-688. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45200491.
Spruit, Leen, and Pina Totaro. 2011. The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza’s Ethica. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004210578.
The Collected Works of Spinoza, Volume II: Benedictus de Spinoza, edited and translated by Edwin Curley. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016.
van de Ven, Jeroen M. M. 2022. Printing Spinoza: A Descriptive Bibliography of the Works Published in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004467996.
Žižek, Slavoj. 2004. Organs without Bodies: Deleuze and Consequences. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203699874.








