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About the Journal
Historia: Philosophy & Theory is a double-blind peer-reviewed biannual international academic electronic journal of the Laboratory for Philosophy and Theory of History based in Yerevan State University, Armenia. The journal is published twice a year, in June and December. The journal aims to comprehensively address philosophical matters pertaining to the disciplines of history and historiography, while concurrently delving into theoretical concerns associated with historical narratives, that of national and beyond.
Current Issue
Vol. 2 (2026)
Full Issue
Article
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Article
Two Ways of Presenting the Past, or How Worldview and Behavioral Patterns Transform History Into Ideology
AbstractThe article examines the phenomenon of “sponsored history,” understood as a representation of the past shaped by political, social, or ideological interests and distinguished from scholarly history by its reliance on emotional, dramatic, symbolic, and mythical modes of presentation. The article asks why such representations, despite their departure from factual historiography, can acquire considerable psychological and social influence. It argues that the effectiveness of sponsored history cannot be explained solely by its manipulation of historical facts. Rather, its viability derives from its capacity to activate dimensions of the past that are preserved through experience, memory, emotion, and recurrent patterns of human perception and behavior. To develop this argument, the article employs an operational distinction between factual and experiential presentations of the past and, correspondingly, between its substantive and formal dimensions. Drawing on Ortega y Gasset, Collingwood, Mead, Waters, Cassirer, Eliade, and, most extensively, Jung, it proposes that scholarly history primarily articulates the unique and contingent content of past events, whereas sponsored history can reactivate recurrent psychological forms and invest them with particular historical content. In this sense, ideology gives emotionally and symbolically charged representations of the past renewed concrete meaning, helping explain their enduring capacity for identification and mobilization.
ReferencesAugustine (1943). The Confessions of St. Augustine (J. G. Pilkington, Trans.). Liveright Publishing Corp.
Baets, A. de. (2009). Responsible History. Berghahn Books.
Cassirer, E. (1956). An Essay on Man: An Introduction to a Philosophy of Human Culture. Doubleday Anchor Books.
Collingwood, R. G. (1993). The Idea of History (Rev. ed.). Oxford University Press.
Eliade, M. (1959). Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return. Harper Torchbooks.
Jaspers, K. (1965). The Origin and Goal of History. Yale University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1919). Instinct and Unconscious. The British Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 15-23.
Jung, C. G. (1972). On the Psychology of the Unconscious. In: The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 7, Two essays on analytical psychology). Princeton University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1977). Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype. In: The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 9, Part I). Princeton University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1954). Der philosophische Baum. In: Von den Wurzeln des Bewusstseins: Studien über den Archetypus. Rascher Verlag.
Kragh, H. (1989). An Introduction to the Historiography of Science. Cambridge University Press.
Mead, G. H. (1956). History and the Experimental Method. In: A. Strauss (ed.), The Social Psychology of George Herbert Mead. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mullins, W. A. (1974). Sartori’s Concept of Ideology: A Dissent and an Alternative. In: A. R. Wilcox (Ed.), Public opinion and political attitudes. John Wiley & Sons.
Ortega y Gasset, J. (1961). History as a System and Other Essays Toward a Philosophy of History. New York: The Norton Library.
Rejai, M. (1991). Political Ideologies: A Comparative Approach. New York, London: M. E. Sharpe.
Russell, B. (1921). The Analysis of Mind. Allen & Unwin.
Rank, O. (1929). The Trauma of Birth. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
Waters, B. (1955). The Past and the Historical Past. The Journal of Philosophy, 52(10), 253-269.
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Article
Narrativist Philosophy of Historiography, Literary Theory and the “More-than-Human History”
AbstractThe paper engages with recent debates surrounding the Anthropocene within the field of professional history. It aims to offer an approach distinct from the history of concepts by focusing on narrative studies and addressing debates on the relationship between history and fiction, with an emphasis on temporality. The starting point is the observation that the so-called paradigm shift in the humanities has paid scant attention to narrativist debates and the legacy of the linguistic turn. Indeed, the article seeks to foster discussion of this legacy and to present a bibliography ranging from literary theory to a historically grounded approach centered on temporality. First, the article explores how the legacy of the linguistic turn has been remembered or forgotten in the context of emerging debates on "more-than-human history" and paradigm shifts in the humanities. It then proposes that historians should be attentive to the potential of incorporating literary theory into Anthropocene debates. Specifically, the discussion focuses on studies that utilize the concept of the *chronotope* to examine temporality, while proposing a distinction in its application to Anthropocene temporality – diverging from the usage established by Mary Louise Pratt. From this basis, I suggest that studying the chronotope offers a better understanding of two themes: (1) multiscalar time and (2) the expansion of debates regarding historical realism. I also believe that a clearer grasp of these themes enables a more evocative approach to what has been termed "the multiple possibilities of the future that exist in the present and the past" – a theme notably discussed by Azoulay and Kellner. The article deliberately avoids dwelling on specific examples of critical analysis regarding novels or short stories, as I believe this approach clarifies the contribution to the historian's craft.
ReferencesAnkersmit, Frank; Domanska, Ewa; Kellner, Hans. (2009) Re-Figuring Hayden White. Stanford University Press.
Azoulay, A. (2013), Potential History: Thinking Through Violence, Critical Inquiry, 39 (3): 548-74.
Bakhtin, Mikhail. (1973) “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel.” The dialogic imagination. Four essays by M. M. Bakhtin. (ed.) Michael Holquist. University of Texas Austin Press.
Bevilacqua, Gilda; Garcia, Fernando Gomes; Braga, Sabrina. (2025) “Theory of History after the Linguistic Turn”. Hist. Historiogr., Ouro Preto, v. 18, p. 1-24.
Bervenage, Berber. (2013) History, Memory, and State-Sponsored Violence: Time and Justice. Routledge Approaches to History.
Bonneuil, Christophe, Fressoz, Jean-Baptiste. (2016) L’Evénement Anthropocène La Terre, l’histoire et nous. Editions du Seuil.
Castro, Eduardo Viveiros & Danowski, Déborah. (2014) Há mundo por vir? Ensaio sobre os medos e os fins. Florianópolis, Desterro, Cultura e Barbárie e Instituto Socioambiental.
Chakrabarty, D. (2009), ‘The Climate of History: Four Theses’, Critical Inquiry, 35 (2): 197–222.
Chakrabarty, D. (2015), ‘Decentering the Human? Or What Remains of Gaia’, in The Human Condition in the Anthropocene. The Tanner Lectures in Human Values delivered at Yale University, 18–19 February, 165–88, available online: https :/ /tannerlectures.ut ah.edu/Chakrabartymunuscript.pdf
Colebrook, Claire. (2014) Death of the PostHuman: Essays on Extinction, Vol 1. Open Humanities Press.
Domanska, Ewa. (2024) A história para além do humano. Taynna Marino e Julio Bentivoglio (org.). Tradução de Taynna Marino e Hugo Merlo. Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV, 2024
Domanska, Ewa. (2021) “The Paradigm Shift in the Contemporary Humanities and Social Sciences” Philosophy of History: twenty-first-century perspectives. (ed) by Jouni-Matti Kuukkanen. London; New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
Domanska, Ewa. (2018) Hayden White’s Anthropocentric Posthumanism. Journal on Theory, Historiography and Uses of the Past 6: 89-95.
Dray, William. “On the Nature and Role of Narrative in Historiography” History and Theory 10 (2):153-171 (1971).
Elias, Amy. (2001) Sublime Desire: History and Post-1960s Fiction. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Garrard, Greg; Handwerk, Gary; WILKE, Sabine. (2014) Introduction: Imaginig Anew: Challenges of Representing the Anthropocene. Environmental Humanities, I5 149-153.
Genette, Gerard. Narrative Discourse. Cornell University Press, 1972.
Ghosh, Amitav. (2016) The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable. University of Chicago Press.
Haraway, Donna. Antropoceno, Capitaloceno, Plantationoceno, Chthuluceno: fazendo parentes. Trad. Susana Dias, Mara Verônica e Ana Godoy. ClimaCom – Vulnerabilidade [Online], (2016) Campinas, ano 3, n.5. Available from: https://climacom.mudancasclimaticas.net.br/antropoceno-capitaloceno-plantationoceno-chthuluceno-fazendo-parentes/
Hartog, François. (2019) Regimes de historicidade: presentismo e experiências do tempo. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica.
Heise, Ursula. (2016) The Environmental Humanities and the Futures of the Human. New German Critique. 128.43.
Heise, Ursula. (2019) Science Fiction and the Timescales of the Anthropocene. ELH, Volume 86, Number 2, Summer, pp. 275-304.
Heise, Ursula K.; Carruth, Allison. (2010) Introduction to Focus: Environmental Humanities. American Book Review, Volume 32, Number 1, November/December, p. 3.
Hiltner, Ken. (2014) Ecocriticism: The Essential Reader. Londres: Routledge.
Jablonka, Ivan. (2018) History Is a Contemporary Literature. Translation: Nathan J. Bracher. Cornell University Press.
Kellner, Hans. (2025) For an Impractical Past. Hist. Historiogr., Ouro Preto, v. 18, e 2447, p. 1-30.
Kukaanen, Jouni-Matti (2021) “A Conceptual Map for Twenty-First-Century Philosophy of History.” Philosophy of History: Twenty-First-Century Perspectives. London: Bloomsbury.
Kukaanen, Jouni-Matti. (2015) Postnarrativist Philosophy of Historiography. Palgrave MacMillan.
Latour, B. (2017), Facing Gaia: Eight Lectures on the New Climate Regime, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Lemenager, Stephanie. (2017) “Climate Change and the Struggle for Genre.” Anthropocene Reading: Literary History in Geologic Times. Tobias Menely and Jesse Oak Taylor, eds. Pennsylvania State UP 220-38.
Morton, Timothy. (2013) Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the end of the world. University of Minnesota Press.
Morton, Timothy. (2013) “Poisoned Ground: Art and Philosophy in the Time of Hyperobjects”. Symploke 21.1-2: 37-50.
Acker, Antoine; Rozeaux Sébastien; Pádua, José Augusto; PEŠA, Iva; MATHIS Charles-François. (2022) Table ronde: Vers une histoire transatlantique de l’anthropocène? Caravelles: Dossier – L’Anthropocène, vu d’Amérique latine.
Plumwood, Val. (2002) Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason. London and New York: Routledge.
Pratt, Mary Louise. (2022) Planetary Longings. Durham: Duke University Press.
Roth, Paul Andrew. (2020) The Philosophical Structure of Historical Explanation. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Simon, Z.B. (2019) History in Times of Unprecedented Change: A Theory for the 21st Century, London, New York, Oxford, New Delhi, Sydney: Bloomsbury Academic.
Stengers, Isabelle. (2015) In Catastrophic Times. Resisting the Coming Barbarism. Open Humanities Press.
Tamm, Marek; Simon, Zoltán Boldizsár. (2021) “More-than-Human History: Philosophy of History at the Time of the Anthropocene.” In: KUUKKANEN, Jouni-Matti (ed.). Philosophy of History: Twenty-First-Century Perspectives. London: Bloomsbury.
Tozzi, Verónica. (2009) La historia según la nueva filosofía de la historia. [S. l.]: Prometeo.
Tozzi, Verónica. (2025) Trust, Testimony, and the Epistemic Value of Historical Narrative. Hist. Historiogr., Ouro Preto, v. 18, e2336, p. 1-24.
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. (2015) The Mushroom at the end of the World. On the possibility of life in Capitalist ruins. Princeton University Press.
White, Hayden. (2014) “Historical Discourse and Literary Theory”. The Practical Past. Northwestern University Press.
White, Hayden. (2008). “The Future of Utopia in History.” Historein, 7, 12–19
White, Hayden. (1999) Figural Realism: Studies in the Mimesis Effect. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
Zeleňák, Eugene. (2025) “Mapping Theory of History after the Linguistic Turn: New Realism and the Epistemic Approach” Hist. Historiogr., Ouro Preto, v. 18, e2370, p. 1-24.
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Article
Foucauldian Discourse Analysis and Historical-Critical Pedagogy in the South Caucasus: Reading the Armenian Satirical Newspaper Khatabala (1906-1926)
AbstractThis article applies Michel Foucault’s conceptual vocabulary to three documented caricatures from the Armenian satirical newspaper Khatabala, published in Tiflis during 1906-1916 and revived in 1922 and 1925-1926, in order to connect historical interpretation with historical-critical pedagogy in the late imperial South Caucasus. The study is qualitative and corpus-informed. It draws on a structured research dataset containing several hundred caricatures, articles, and editorials from the South Caucasian satirical press and focuses on three Khatabala images already documented in the author’s dissertation corpus: Death standing on a mountain of skulls in no. 14 (1906), ‘The Question of the Mukhrani Bridge in Tiflis’ in no. 22 (1906), and ‘Internal Pedagogical Reform at the Hovnanyan School’ in no. 34 (1907). These examples were selected purposively to represent three recurrent thematic clusters – intercommunal violence, municipal governance, and communal education – and are treated as analytically illustrative rather than statistically representative. Reading satire as a discursive practice, the article examines how allegory, visual equivalence, captioning, irony, and ridicule expose authority while also producing norms and subject positions. The final section proposes, rather than evaluates, a classroom methodology based on the three sourced caricatures.
ReferencesPrimary Sources
Khatabala (Armenian satirical newspaper). Tiflis. Principal caricatures analysed: no. 14 (1906), full-page Death composition, National Archives of Georgia, Tbilisi; no. 22 (1906), ‘The Question of the Mukhrani Bridge in Tiflis,’ National Library of Armenia, Yerevan; no. 34 (1907), ‘Internal Pedagogical Reform at the Hovnanyan School,’ National Archives of Georgia, Tbilisi. Related education and governance items consulted include nos. 16 and 19 (1906), no. 27 (1906), no. 39 (1908), no. 51 (1908), and nos. 22 and 24 (1910).
Secondary Sources
Afary, J., & Afary, K. (2022). Molla Nasreddin: The making of a modern trickster, 1906–1911. Edinburgh University Press.
Berberian, H. (2001). Armenians and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. Westview Press.
Burbank, J., & Cooper, F. (2010). Empires in world history: Power and the politics of difference. Princeton University Press.
Coruk, F. J. G. (2025). A study on the Ottoman image in the cartoons of Khatabala magazine. Armenian Studies, 77, 87–127.
Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge (A. M. Sheridan Smith, Trans.). Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Vintage Books.
Foucault, M. (1978). The history of sexuality: Vol. 1. An introduction (R. Hurley, Trans.). Vintage Books.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977 (C. Gordon, Ed.). Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (1982). The subject and power. In H. L. Dreyfus & P. Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond structuralism and hermeneutics (pp. 208–226). University of Chicago Press.
Foucault, M. (1991a). Governmentality. In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality (pp. 87–104). University of Chicago Press.
Foucault, M. (1991b). Governmental rationality: An introduction. In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality (pp. 1–51). University of Chicago Press.
Foucault, M. (2003). Society must be defended: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975–1976 (D. Macey, Trans.). Picador.
Foucault, M. (2007). What is critique? In S. Lotringer (Ed.), The politics of truth (pp. 41–82). Semiotext(e).
Gombrich, E. H., & Kris, E. (1940). Caricature. Penguin.
Gutting, G. (2005). Foucault: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
McPhee, C., & Orenstein, N. (Eds.). (2011). Infinite jest: Caricature and satire from Leonardo to Levine. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
McReynolds, L. (1991). The news under Russia’s old regime: The development of a mass-circulation press. Princeton University Press.
Mills, S. (1997). Discourse. Routledge.
Panossian, R. (2006). The Armenians: From kings and priests to merchants and commissars. Hurst.
Suny, R. G. (1993a). Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in modern history. Indiana University Press.
Suny, R. G. (1993b). The revenge of the past: Nationalism, revolution, and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Stanford University Press.
Swietochowski, T. (1995). Russia and Azerbaijan: A borderland in transition. Columbia University Press.
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Article
Nadia Murad and the Epistemology of the Sinjar Genocide: From Survival to Collective Memory
AbstractThis article examines the 2014 Sinjar Genocide as a process through which survivor testimonies, particularly that of Nadia Murad, are transformed from individual experiences into collective memory and, ultimately, socially and institutionally recognized knowledge. Rather than treating testimony solely as a source for documenting past violence, the article conceptualizes it as an active epistemic practice that contributes to the production and legitimization of knowledge about genocide.
To analyze this transformation, the article proposes an input-process-output epis-temological model. The input stage consists of survivors’ individual experiences, testimonies, memories, and community narratives. The process stage encompasses the social, cultural, legal, academic, media, and institutional mechanisms through which these experiences are mediated, interpreted, transmitted, and incorporated into collective memory. The output stage refers to the institutionalization of knowledge through legal recognition, international reports, academic research, commemorative practices, and public memory policies. Nadia Murad’s testimony serves as an applied case demonstrating how an individual survivor’s experience can acquire representational significance and contribute to international awareness and recognition of the Yazidi genocide. The study argues that knowledge about genocide emerges not merely through documenting events but through the interaction of testimony, collective memory, cultural heritage, sites of memory, and institutional validation. The proposed model offers a framework for comparative research on the transformation of survivor testimony into collective memory and institutionalized historical knowledge.ReferencesAlexander, J. C. (2004). Toward a theory of cultural trauma. In J. C. Alexander, R. Eyerman, B. Giesen, N. J. Smelser, & P. Sztompka (Eds.), Cultural trauma and collective identity (pp. 1-30). University of California Press.
Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute. (2024). The Genocide of the Yazidi People: August 3 Is the Memorial Day for the Victims of the Yazidi Genocide (in Armenian).https://genocide-museum.am/arm/03.08.24.php
Armenpress. (2024, April 16). Armenia designates August 3 as Memorial Day for the victims of the 2014 Sinjar Yazidi Genocide. https://armenpress.am/en/article/1134898
Demir, D. (2026, April 3). Abandoned twice: How the world is failing the Yazidis - Again. Global Human Rights Defence. https://www.ghrd.org/abandoned-twice-how-the-world-is-failing-the-yazidis-again/
Gaunt, D. (2019). The Assyrian Genocide: Seyfo. Independently published.
Halbwachs, M. (1992). On collective memory (L. A. Coser, Ed. & Trans.). University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1950).
Human Rights Watch. (2016, June 21). UN panel reports ISIS crimes against Yazidis amount to genocide. https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/06/21/un-panel-reports-yezidis
Jelin, E. (2003). State repression and the labors of memory. University of Minnesota Press.
Jesuit Refugee Service. (n.d.). Do not forget us: Yazidis. https://jrs.net/en/campaign/donotforgetus-yazidis/
Lemkin, R. (1944). Axis rule in occupied Europe: Laws of occupation, analysis of government, proposals for redress. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Liu, M. X. (2025). The enduring genocide against the Yazidis: How Iraq’s law on religious identity violates the human rights of Yazidi survivors of ISIS captivity and their children born of sexual violence. Georgetown University Law Center.
Montgomery, L. H. (2007). Never again, again, again...: Genocide: Armenia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Darfur. Ruder Finn Press.
Murad, N., & Krajeski, J. (2017). The last girl: My story of captivity, and my fight against the Islamic State. Tim Duggan Books.
Nadia’s Initiative. (2023). Yazidi genocide memorial. Nadia’s Initiative. https://www.nadiasinitiative.org
Nadia’s Initiative. (n.d.). About Nadia’s Initiative and Yazidi advocacy. https://www.nadiasinitiative.org
Nobel Prize Outreach. (2018). The Nobel Peace Prize 2018. NobelPrize.org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2018/summary/
Nora, P. (1989). Between memory and history: Les lieux de mémoire. Representations, 26, 7–24. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928520
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. (2017). Legal remedies for human rights violations on the territories of the member states of the Council of Europe affected by the actions of ISIS. Council of Europe.
Render Turmaud, D. (2020, May 23). What is collective trauma? How it could be impacting us. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/lifting-the-veil-trauma/202005/what-is-collective-trauma/amp
Stanton, G. H. (1996). The 8 stages of genocide. Genocide Watch.
United Nations. (1948). Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide. United Nations.
United Nations Human Rights Council. (2016). “They came to destroy”: ISIS crimes against the Yazidis (A/HRC/32/CRP.2). United Nations Human Rights Council.
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. (2024). Reports on human rights violations and accountability regarding Daesh/ISIL crimes in Iraq. https://www.ohchr.org
United Nations Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic. (2024, August 2). Ten years after the Yazidi genocide: UN Syria Commission of Inquiry calls for justice, including accountability and effective remedies, for ISIL crimes. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Usman, S. M. (2026). Yazidi stories: A case study of resistance, resilience and political erasure in Mesopotamia. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 42(2), 631–643. https://doi.org/10.1017/aee.2026.10148
Woven Teaching. (n.d.). Timeline of modern genocide. https://www.woventeaching.org/timeline-of-modern-genocide
Yazda. (n.d.). Yazidi genocide. Yazda - Yazidi Global Organisation. https://www.yazda.org/yazidi-genocide
Book Review
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Book Review
The Transformations of Archaic Greece and the Problem of Civilizational Choice (Reflections on Albert A. Stepanian’s Monograph Ancient Greece: Research Sketches)
AbstractThis review essay examines the first volume of Albert A. Stepanian's monograph Ancient Greece: Research Esquisses, which reconceptualizes the transformations of post-Mycenaean and Archaic Greece through the analytical concept of the “transitive society.” The article situates Stepanian's argument within contemporary debates in Classical Studies and historical sociology, foregrounding his central thesis that, between the twelfth and eighth centuries BCE, the Greek polities faced not merely the task of recovery but a profound civilizational choice. It traces how this framework structures the monograph's two complementary parts – on the formation of the polis world and on the Spartan model – and assesses the author's treatment of technological change, the polis revolution, the agon, the Great Colonization, early tyranny, the Lycurgan Rhetra, and Plato's Republic. Particular attention is devoted to Stepanian's reinterpretation of Sparta not as an exception but as a distinct paradigm of Archaic social organization, a move that challenges the stereotype of Spartan exceptionalism prevalent in Anglo-American historiography. While affirming the methodological coherence and interdisciplinary scope of the work, the essay also identifies several issues that call for further clarification, most notably the relationship between historical agency and structural constraints and the operational content of the concept of oikoumene.
ReferencesArnason, J. P. (2003). Civilizations in Dispute: Historical Questions and Theoretical Traditions. Leiden: Brill.
Boardman, J. (1999). The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade (4th ed.). London: Thames and Hudson.
Bresson, A. (2016). The Making of the Ancient Greek Economy: Institutions, Markets, and Growth in the City-States (S. Rendall, Trans.). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Burckhardt, J. (1998). The Greeks and Greek Civilization. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Burkert, W. (1992). The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cartledge, P. (2002). Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History 1300-362 BC (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Eisenstadt, S. N. (Ed.). (1986). The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Hansen, M. H. (2006). Polis: An Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Luraghi, N. (2008). The Ancient Messenians: Constructions of Ethnicity and Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Morris, I. (1987). Burial and Ancient Society: The Rise of the Greek City-State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ober, J. (2015). The Rise and Fall of Classical Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Osborne, R. (1998). Early Greek colonization? The nature of Greek settlement in the West. In N. Fisher & H. van Wees (Eds.), Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence (pp. 251-269). London: Duckworth.
Osborne, R. (2009). Greece in the Making, 1200-479 BC (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Powell, A. (2018). Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Raaflaub, K. A., & van Wees, H. (Eds.). (2009). A Companion to Archaic Greece. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Renfrew, C., & Cherry, J. F. (Eds.). (1986). Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-political Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Snodgrass, A. M. (1980). Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment. London: J. M. Dent.
Stepanian, A. A. (2025). Ancient Greece: Research Sketches. Volume I: From Archaic Transitional Society to the Military-Ritual Stability of Sparta. Yerevan: YSU Press.
