Vol. 5 No. 1(13) (2026)

View Vol. 5 No. 1(13) (2026)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46991/JOPS/2026.5.13
Published: 2026-06-01

Comparative politics

  • Comparative politics

    Reforming the EU Asylum and Visa Application Processes: Challenges and Solutions

    Stanyo Dinov
    Abstract

    The European Union (EU) is navigating a period of profound uncertainty, marked by global instability, armed conflicts, diverging international approaches to human rights (HRs), and increasing migration flows. The current asylum and visa systems, shaped by national interests, are inadequate to meet these challenges. Rising migration, combined with internal social pressures, risks undermining the EU’s credibility in upholding its HRs commitments. As all member states (MSs) are affected to varying degrees and face rising costs in security, crime prevention, and social services, the conditions for a common solution are in place.

    The functioning of the EU’s asylum and visa systems underscores institutional challenges while offering a strategic opportunity for cohesive action.

    Asylum and visa procedures face major challenges, including fragmented rules, inconsistent standards, slow processing, and poor coordination among MSs. This paper analyses these issues and proposes three interlinked policy solutions for systemic reform. Their success hinges on MSs’ willingness to compromise, align national interests with EU goals, and commit to genuine cooperation.

    Even partial adoption would significantly improve the status quo. Solutions include: (1) harmonising the legal framework through uniform law, (2) accelerating digital standardisation with enhanced operational tools, and (3) strengthening cooperation via joint training and better-managed funding.

    References

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    AIDA, (2023), Fn. 12 and also East West Forum. Germany sees surge in asylum cases pending before courts, (2025, April 16), East West Forum, available at: https://ewfrf.org/en/2025/04/16/5231/ (accessed 3 July 2025).

    Council of the European Union, Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national, (2003). Official Journal of the European Union, L 50, 25/2/2003, pp. 1–10.

    Da Conceição-Heldt, European policy failure during the refugee crisis: Partial empowerment, reluctant agents, a cacophony of voices, and unilateral action (EUI RSCAS Working Paper No. 2018/36), (2018), European University Institute, available at https://cadmus.eui.eu/entities/publication/88fcfaa5-ece4-5e26-8d1c-4dfb2c7824ed (accessed 2 July 2025).

    Euractiv, Pressure to allow asylum processing in third countries mounts on Germany’s Scholz, (21 Jun 2024), available at: https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/pressure-to-allow-asylum-processing-in-third-countries-mounts-on-germanys-scholz/ (accessed 3 July 2025).

    Euronews, EU completes reform of migration rules despite Poland and Hungary voting against, (14 May 2024). Euronews, available at: https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/05/14/eu-completes-reform-of-migration-rules-despite-poland-and-hungary-voting-against (accessed 3 July 2025), also: Euronews, EU asylum requests down by 11% in 2024, but still exceed one million, (2025, March 3), available at: https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2025/03/03/eu-asylum-requests-down-by-11-in-2024-but-still-exceed-one-million (accessed 3 July 2025).

    Euronews, EU completes reform of migration rules despite Poland and Hungary voting against, (2024, May 14), available at: https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/05/14/eu-completes-reform-of-migration-rules-despite-poland-and-hungary-voting-against (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Commission, Entry/Exit System (EES), (13 May 2025), Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs, available at: https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/schengen/smart-borders/entry-exit-system_en (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Commission, European Criminal Records Information System (ECRIS), (2025), available at: https://commission.europa.eu/law/cross-border-cases/judicial-cooperation/tools-judicial-cooperation/european-criminal-records-information-system-ecris_en (accessed 3 July 2025), see also: EULISA, (ECRIS-TCN), the European Criminal Records Information System - Third Country Nationals, (2025), available at: https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/activities/large-scale-it-systems/ecris-tcn (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Commission, Pact on migration and asylum, (2024), Directorate-General for Communication, available at https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/bc9868b9-0769-11ef-a251-01aa75ed71a1/language-en (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Commission, Schengen Information System (SIS), (7 March 2023) available at: https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/schengen/schengen-information-system_en (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Communities, Convention determining the State responsible for examining applications for asylum lodged in one of the Member States of the European Communities (Dublin Convention), (15 June 1990), available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A41997A0819%2801%29 (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Data Protection Supervisor, ‘Migration Management and Data Protection: One of the Last Lines of Defence for Vulnerable Individuals’ (28 May 2025), available at: https://www.edps.europa.eu/press-publications/press-news/press-releases/2025/migration-management-data-protection-one-last-lines-defence-vulnerable-individuals_fr?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union Directive 2013/32/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on common procedures for granting and withdrawing international protection (recast). Official Journal of the European Union, L 180, 60–95 available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013L0032 (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union Directive 2013/33/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 laying down standards for the reception of applicants for international protection (recast). Official Journal of the European Union, L 180, 96–116, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013L0033, (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (recast). Official Journal of the European Union, L 337, 9–26, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32011L0095 (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union, Regulation (EU) 2018/1240 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 September 2018 establishing a European Travel Information and Authorisation System (ETIAS) and amending Regulations (EU) No 1077/2011, (EU) No 515/2014, (EU) 2016/399, (EU) 2016/1624 and (EU) 2017/2226. Official Journal of the European Union, L 236, 1–71, (3 August 2021), available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32018R1240 (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union. (2023). Regulation (EU) 2023/2667 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 November 2023 amending Regulations (EC) No 767/2008, (EC) No 810/2009 and (EU) 2017/2226 of the European Parliament and of the Council, Council Regulations (EC) No 693/2003 and (EC) No 694/2003 and Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement, as regards the digitalisation of the visa procedure. Official Journal of the European Union, L 7, (7 December 2023), 1–43, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32023R2667 (accessed 2 July 2025)

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union. (2024). Regulation (EU) 2024/1358 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on the establishment of ‘Eurodac’ for the comparison of biometric data in order to effectively apply Regulations (EU) 2024/1351 and (EU) 2024/1350 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Council Directive 2001/55/EC and to identify illegally staying third-country nationals and stateless persons and on requests for the comparison with Eurodac data by Member States’ law enforcement authorities and Europol for law enforcement purposes, amending Regulations (EU) 2018/1240 and (EU) 2019/818 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EU) No 603/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Official Journal of the European Union, L 2024/1358, (22 May 2024), available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1358/oj/eng (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Parliament & Council of the European Union. (2024). Regulation (EU) 2024/1348 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a common procedure for international protection in the Union and repealing Directive 2013/32/EU. Official Journal of the European Union, L 2024/1348, (22 May 2024), available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32024R1348 (accessed 2 July 2025.

    European Union Agency for Asylum, Statement of revenues and expenditures 2024, (13 February 2024), available at: https://euaa.europa.eu/publications/euaa-statement-revenues-and-expenditures-2024 (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Union Agency for Asylum. Case of alleged irregularities at EUAA officially closed, (22 March 2024), available at: https://euaa.europa.eu/news-events/case-alleged-irregularities-euaa-officially-closed (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems (eu-LISA), (2025). Schengen Information System (SIS), available at: https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/activities/large-scale-it-systems/sis (accessed 2 July 2025)

    European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems (eu-LISA). (n.d.). Visa Information System (VIS), available at: https://www.eulisa.europa.eu/activities/large-scale-it-systems/vis (accessed 2 July 2025).

    European Union Agency for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT Systems in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice, (2024). Eurodac 2023 annual report, available at: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/be2be034-da06-11ef-be2a-01aa75ed71a1/language-en (accessed 3 July 2025).

    European Union, Convention determining the State responsible for examining applications for asylum lodged in one of the Member States of the European Communities (Dublin Convention), (1997). Official Journal C 254, 19/08/1997, pp. 1–12.

    European Union, Regulation (EU) No 604/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an application for international protection lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national or a stateless person (recast), (2013). Official Journal of the European Union, L 180, 29 June 2013, 31–59.

    Human Rights Watch, Hungary: Ukrainian refugees losing housing, (11 September 2024), available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/11/hungary-ukrainian-refugees-losing-housing (accessed 3 July 2025).

    International Investment, Asylum in the EU in 2024: Application statistics, policy changes and forecasts, (24 April 2025), available at: https://internationalinvestment.biz/en/analytics/5614-asylum-in-the-eu-in-2024-application-statistics-policy-changes-and-forecasts.html (accessed 3 July 2025).

    Kohlenberger, J. Migration policy: European Union increasingly outsources responsibility for asylum, (2024, October 15). Heinrich Böll Stiftung EU, available at: https://eu.boell.org/en/2024/10/15/migration-policy-european-union-increasingly-outsources-responsibility-asylum (accessed 3 July 2025).

    Moravcsik, A. The choice for Europe: Social purpose and state power from Messina to Maastricht, (Cornell University Press 1998), also E. R. Thielemann, Between interests and norms: Explaining burden-sharing in the European Union. Journal of Refugee Studies, (2003), 16(3), 253–273, available at https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/16.3.253 (accessed 2 July 2025).

    Schengen Visa Code, European Parliament & Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2019/1155 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 amending Regulation (EC) No 810/2009 establishing a Community Code on Visas (Visa Code), (2019). Official Journal of the European Union, L 188, 25–54, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32019R1155 (accessed 3 July 2025).

    The Times, EU votes for €2bn reform of migrant laws, (2024, April 10), available at: https://www.thetimes.com/world/article/eu-asylum-seekers-first-country-migration-m9lk75gcq (accessed 2 July 2025).

  • Comparative politics

    The Effectiveness of Biosecurity Policy Regulation in China

    Bagrat Vardanyan
    Abstract

    This article examines political science issues related to biological risks and biosecurity, which have acquired exceptional significance due to a number of global processes. The increasing frequency of pandemics, the rapid advancement of genetic engineering, and the potential threats posed by biological weapons underscore the relevance of this topic. In recent decades, the accelerated spread of pathogens and the resulting epidemics have become global challenges. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated society's vulnerability to biological risks, simultaneously highlighting the critical need for robust biosecurity systems. At the same time, against the backdrop of globalization and the deepening of international relations, the spread of pathogens from one region to another has become faster and more uncontrollable. Biological risks pose not only a threat to public health but can also cause economic damage, disrupt ecosystem stability, and even become a national security issue. Moreover, the unpredictable consequences of the potential use of biological weapons make this topic a subject of critical scientific and political debate. These circumstances require the development of innovative and modern approaches to the effective management and prevention of biological risks. Such approaches must integrate technological, scientific, and legal solutions aimed at ensuring biosecurity at both the global and local levels. In this regard, a comparative analysis of biological risks, their impact on public health, national security, and ecosystems, as well as modern approaches to ensuring biosecurity in China, are of particular importance.

    References

    Biosecurity Law of the People's Republic of China (Adopted at the 22nd Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Thirteenth National People’s Congress on October 17, 2020). Accessed August 16, 2025. http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/2020-10/17/c_703568.htm.

    Cameron, Elizabeth E. 2017. “Emerging and converging global catastrophic biological risks.” Health Security 15 (4): 337-338. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2017.0043.

    Cao, Cong. 2021. “China’s evolving biosafety/biosecurity legislations.” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 8 (1), January-June: lsab020. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab020.

    China's GMO Regulations Overview, USDA, 2023. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://fas.usda.gov/data/china-revised-draft-measures-labeling-agricultural-gmos-published-comments.

    Crowley, Michael, and Malcolm Dando. 2024. “Regulation of toxins and bioregulators under the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 6 (2), June: 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2024.03.003.

    Delfosse, Ernest S. 2005. “Risk and ethics in biological control.” Biological Control 35 (3), December: 319-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.09.009.

    Fang, Chen; Zhiqiang, Zhang; Chenjun, Ding; and Xiaoyan, Wu. 2020. “Analysis of Global Biosafety Strategy and Recommendations to China.” Bulletin of Chinese Academy 35 (2), Article 10.

    Fuller, Thomas P. 2022. “Hazardous biological agents: risk assessment to risk control.” Safety and Health at Work 13: S81-S81.

    Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://en.nhc.gov.cn/2019-03/05/c_74526.htm.

    Liang, Huigang, Cui Huang, Xiaoli Zhu, and Zhiming Yuan. 2021. “Significance of and outlook for the Biosecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 3 (1), June: 46-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2021.06.004.

    Lindahl, Johanna Frida and Delia Grace. 2015. “The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: a review.” Infection Ecology & Epidemiology 5.

    Liu, Shu-Sheng, Asha Rao, and S. Bradleigh Vinson. 2014. “Biological Control in China: Past, present and future – An introduction to this special issue.” Biological Control (68), January: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2013.05.005.

    Min, Kaiyuan, Yi Zhang, Jiangfeng Liu et al. 2025. “China’s biosafety/biosecurity governance: evolution, challenges, and architecture design.” Frontiers of Medicine 19: 871-878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-025-1158-y.

    Qin, Qin, and Youhai Sun. 2019. “A Global Biosafety Strategy Research Framework with Specific Implications for China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 1 (2): 105-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2019.08.006.

    Sun, Tao, Jie Song, Meng Wang, Chao Zhao, and Weiwen Zhang. 2022. “Challenges and recent progress in the governance of biosecurity risks in the era of synthetic biology.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 4 (1), June: 59-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2022.02.002.

    Wang, Xiaoli. 2020. “Enhancing the National Biosecurity System in China amidst COVID-19 Epidemic.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 2 (1): 3-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2020.03.002.

    World Health Organization (WHO). 2024. Global report on infection prevention and control. Accessed August 16, 2025. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240103986.

    Wu, Guizhen. 2019. “Laboratory biosafety in China: past, present, and future.” Biosafety and Health 1 (2), September: 56-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsheal.2019.10.003.

    Yassif, Jaime M. 2017. “Reducing Global Catastrophic Biological Risks.” Health Security 15 (4): 329-330. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2017.0049.

    Yassif, Jaime M., Shayna Korol, and Angela Kane. 2023. “Guarding Against Catastrophic Biological Risks: Preventing State Biological Weapon Development and Use by Shaping Intentions.” Health Security 21 (4): 258-265. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2022.0145.

    Zhang, Yu, Jia Lu, Fang Zhang et al. 2023. “Biosafety management in high-biosafety-risk workshops for vaccine production in China.” Journal of Biosafety and Biosecurity 5 (4), December: 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobb.2023.11.002.

Regional Policy

  • Regional Policy

    Restructuring and its Nexus with National Security and Development Management in Nigeria: An African Policy

    Jibrin Ubale Yahaya
    Abstract

    This article analyzes the fundamental conditions governing national security and development management in Nigeria. In this regard, it takes into account the specifics of Nigeria's political history during the colonial era and the unification of the Northern and Southern Protectorates. This paper attempts to determine whether current calls for restructuring in Nigeria, despite the objections of some groups, will provide a bright future for the country. Restructuring is examined in terms of granting states greater power than the federal government, as well as in terms of resource control and the creation of state police forces.
    Nigeria's security is challenged on a number of fronts, including the inability to feed itself, ensure economic growth and decent living conditions for the majority of the population, and protect itself from external aggression and internal conflict. All of this is exacerbated by an underdeveloped scientific and technological base, as well as inadequate governance. Despite the country's abundant natural resources, they are either underutilized or under the control of international economic entities that are primarily concerned with their own financial well-being rather than the well-being of local residents. Globalization brings with it problems such as the illegal exploitation of human and natural resources, unrestrained by any international norms, the infiltration and active operation of international organized crime groups, amidst weak legal protections for citizens and pervasive corruption, which also poses one of the main threats to Nigeria's national security.
    The article concludes that modern Nigeria is in dire need of patriotic leaders who could strategically lead the country toward sustainable development.

    References

    Agidi E, Pally, (2020) Restructuring, National Security and Nigeria’s Relationship with the External World, UJAH Volume 21 (4) (Special Edition).

    Ajayi, A. (1992), “The National Question in Historical Perspective.” Text of the 5th Guardian Newspaper Lecture. The Guardian (Lagos), November 5.

    Ake, Claude (1981) A Political Economy of Africa, New York, Longman.

    Amaechi, C. M. & Muoh, O. U. (2017). Constitution building as a panacea to identity conflicts in Africa: The case of Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 8 (4): 17-26.

    Asaju, K. & Egberi, T. (2015). Federal character and national integration in Nigeria: The need for discretion and Journal of Business and Social Review in Emerging Economies 5 (1), June 2019 95 interface. Review of History and Political Science 3(1): 126-134.

    Bello-Imam I. B. (2005) Governance in Nigeria: Economy, Politics and Society in the Adjustment Years 1985–1995. Lagos: Stirling-Horden Publishers, pp. 157–174.

    Dibua, J. I. (2006), Modernization and the Crisis of Development in Africa: The Nigerian Experience. Aldershot and Burlington, Ashgate.

    Eteng, I.A. (1998), “The ‘National Question’ and Federal Restructuring in Nigeria,” in CASS, The Challenge of African Development: Tributes and Essays in Honour of Claude Ake. Port Harcourt: Centre for Advanced Social Science, pp. 120–170.

    Farayibi, A. O. (2017). The structure of Nigeria's restructuring rhetoric. National discourse. Centre for Allied Research and Economic Development Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, ND002/September, p. 1-18.

    Geertz, C. (1994). Primordial loyalities and Standing Entities: Anthropological Reflections on the Politics of Identity, Budapest/HUN: Collegium, Budapest: Institute for Advanced Study.

    Harman, Chris (1992), “The Return of the National Question,” International Socialism, 2 (56): 3-61.

    Jega, A. M. (1996) “The Political Economy of Nigerian Federalism”, in J. I, Elagwu and R.A. Akindele, eds., Foundations of Nigerian Federalism, 1960–1995. Jos: Institute of Governance and Social Resaerch. pp. 87–104.

    Kukah, M. H. (1993), Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

    Mohammed, I. S. & Aisha, A. A. (2018). Fulani/herdsmen-farmers conflict in Nigeria: The emerging dimensions, complications and the Theatre. Beau Bassin, Mauritius: Lambert Academic Publishing.

    Momoh, A. (2002), “The Philosophy and Theory of the National Question,” in A. Momoh and S. Adejumobi (eds.) The National Question in Nigeria: Comparative Perspectives. Aldershot, Ashgate, pp. 1– 30.

    Sagay, I.E. (2001). “Federalism, the Constitution and Resource Control,” Being a speech delivered at a sensitization programme organized by the Ibori Vanguard on Saturday, May 19, at The Lagoon Restaurant, Lagos, p. 57.

    Soyinka, W. (1996), “The National Question in Africa: Internal Imperatives,” Development and Change 27: 279-300.

    Woods, A. and Grant, T. (2000) “Marxism and the National Question,” in Defence of Marxism. 25 February. Accessed December 28, 2025. https://marxist.com/marxism-national-question250200.htm.

  • Regional Policy

    Towards an African Solution-Oriented Approach to Conflict Analysis in African Peace and Security (2002-2022)

    Abraham Ename Minko
    Abstract

    This paper proposes an AfSol-oriented (African Solutions) approach to conflict analysis in Africa's peace and security sphere, focusing on the period between 2002 and 2022. As Africa grapples with numerous internal and external challenges to peace and stability, it becomes imperative to examine the roles, perspectives, and interactions of all stakeholders involved in resolving conflicts across the continent. An AfSol-oriented approach calls for a shift from externally driven solutions to locally led, context-specific initiatives that promote sustainable peace and security. The study identifies the key stakeholders involved in Africa's peace and security processes, including regional organizations, national governments, non-state actors, civil society, and international partners. By examining their respective roles, motivations, and capabilities, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the intricate web of interactions among these actors. Furthermore, the paper highlights the importance of promoting inclusivity and local ownership in conflict resolution strategies. It argues that genuine and lasting peace can only be achieved when the affected communities actively participate in shaping the solutions to their problems. The AfSol-oriented approach emphasizes the need to prioritize local knowledge, cultural practices, and traditional conflict resolution mechanisms, while also complementing them with modern strategies and international support.

    References

    Abrahamsen, Rita, Carol B. Thompson, Cyril I. Obi, and Franklin Charles Graham IV. 2013. Conflict and Security in Africa. Boydell & Brewer, Limited.

    Adams, Adeola, and Chux Gervase Iwu. 2015. "Conflict resolution: Understanding concepts and issues in conflict prevention, management, and transformation." Corporate Ownership and Control 12, no. 4, 431–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv12i4c4p1

    Addison, Tony. 2001. Reconstruction from war in Africa: Communities, entrepreneurs, and states. Helsinki: United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research.

    Adekanye, J. 'Bayo. 2007. Linking conflict diagnosis, conflict prevention, and conflict management in contemporary Africa: Selected essays. Lagos, Nigeria: Ababa Press Ltd.

    Adem, Seifudein. 2004. "Cultures of Political Recycling and Conflict Resolution in Japan: Any Lessons for Africa?" African and Asian Studies 3, no. 1, 3–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15692108-00301002

    Akinola, Adeoye O., and Ufo Okeke Uzodike. 2017. "Ubuntu and the Quest for Conflict Resolution in Africa." Journal of Black Studies 49, no. 2, 91–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021934717736186

    Anyang' Nyong'o, Peter. 1998. "Governance, Security and Conflict Resolution in Africa." Diogenes 46, no. 184, 129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/039219219804618413

    Apuuli, Kasaija Phillip. 2020. "The African Union and Peacekeeping in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities." Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 20, no. 4, 667–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2020-20-4-667-677

    Attah-Poku, Agyemang. 1998. African ethnicity: History, conflict management, resolution, and prevention. Lanham: University Press of America.

    Bank, African Development. 2008. African development report: Conflict resolution, peace and reconstruction in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Blake, Cecil. 1998. "The Role of Peace Communication in Conflict Resolution in Africa." Journal of Black Studies 28, no. 3, 309–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002193479802800302

    Benjamin, Jesse J., Brandon D. Lundy, and A. G. Adebayo. 2014. Indigenous conflict management strategies: Global perspectives. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books.

    Brewer, Cecily G. 2011. "Peril by Proxy: Negotiating Conflicts in East Africa." International Negotiation 16, no. 1, 137–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180611x553908

    Deng, Francis Mading. 2008. Identity, diversity, and constitutionalism in Africa. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.

    Diouf, Babacar. 1998. "The future of conflict resolution in Africa and the role of the Organization of African Unity (OAU)." Thesis, Monterey, Calif.: Springfield, Va.: Naval Postgraduate School; Available from National Technical Information Service. http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA350148

    Dlamini, Thandeka Lungile. 2000. "Searching for new relevance in the 1990s: the Organization of African Unity as an instrument of conflict resolution." Thesis, Rhodes University. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1002980

    Ebegbulem, Joseph C. 2011. "Nigeria and conflict resolution in Africa: The Darfur experience." Civilizer 11, no. 21, 69. http://dx.doi.org/10.22518/16578953.34

    Fisher, Ronald J., Herbert C. Kelman, and Susan Allen Nan. 2013. Conflict Analysis and Resolution. Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199760107.013.0016

    Godfrey, Okoth P., Ogot Bethwell A, and Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. 2000. Conflict in contemporary Africa. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

    Grovogui, Siba N'Zatioula, and I. William Zartman. 1990. "Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa." International Journal of African Historical Studies 23, no. 3, 565. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/219638

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    Hammed, Hanafi A. 2015. "Appraising the Role of African Union: The New Partnership for Africa’s Development in Conflict Prevention and Management in Africa." International and Comparative Law Review 15, no. 2, 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/iclr-2016-0036

    Helinjiva, Rakotondrasoa. 2018. "Non-Armed Conflict Resolution by African Union." Jurnal Dinamika Global 3, no. 01, 51–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.36859/jdg.v3i01.56

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    Moreda, Fiseha. 2022. "Analysing the concept of peace in post-conflict African countries." Global Journal of Sociology: Current Issues 12, no. 1, 71–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.18844/gjs.v12i1.6522

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Public Policy

  • Public Policy

    China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Infrastructure Development in Nigeria: Assessing the Risks and Benefits of Rail Investments

    Adedeji Daniel Gbadebo
    Abstract

    This article provides a comparative analysis of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), taking into account its significant impact on Nigerian infrastructure development, particularly railway projects. It assesses the risks and benefits of BRI-financed railway projects, focusing on their economic, social, and environmental impacts. The article notes that while BRI-financed rail investments improve transport infrastructure, economic activity, and regional connectivity, questions remain regarding debt sustainability, dependence on Chinese technology and labor, and governance transparency. Statistical results indicate that the claimed benefits of BRI railway projects do not have a significant social impact on the quality of life in Nigeria. Moreover, the associated risks, such as increased public debt and economic dependence, do not significantly outweigh the benefits. The study recommends reviewing Belt and Road agreements to encourage local business participation, conducting thorough cost-benefit assessments before issuing new loans, and improving governance mechanisms to ensure transparency and accountability. Furthermore, long-term maintenance plans should be reviewed and environmental impact assessments conducted to maintain infrastructure efficiency and mitigate negative impacts. Overall, while the Belt and Road Initiative holds significant potential for developing Nigeria's infrastructure, a balanced strategy is needed to reap its benefits while mitigating its risks.

    References

    Alajemba, N. (2018). China invests over $16 billion in Nigeria’s telecoms sector. ITEdgeNews. Retrieved August 17, 2023, from https://www.itedgenews.africa/china-invests-16-billion-nigerias-telecoms-sector/

    Alhassan, L. (2024). Assessing the socioeconomic impact of Chinese investments in Nigeria under the Belt & Road Initiative. BRIQ Belt and Road Initiative Quarterly, 5(2), 192–209.

    Amusan, T. (2022). What Nigeria can teach us about China’s Belt and Road. The Diplomat. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://thediplomat.com/2022/11/what-nigeria-can-teach-us-about-chinas-belt-and-road/

    Carmody, P., Taylor, I., & Zajontz, T. (2022). China’s spatial fix and ‘debt diplomacy’ in Africa: Constraining Belt or Road to economic transformation? Canadian Journal of African Studies, 56(1), 1–21.

    Deol. (2023). China delivers major infrastructure projects in Nigeria. ACE Times. Retrieved February 27, 2023, from https://www.zawya.com/en/projects/bri/china-delivers-major-infrastructure-projects-in-nigeria-elj6dv3l/

    Dokua Sasu, D. (2023). Oil industry in Nigeria. Statista. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/topics/6914/oil-industry-in-nigeria/#topicOverview

    Ezeani, E. O., & Ngoka, R. O. (2022). Nigeria-China relations and infrastructural development in Nigeria. University of Nigeria Journal of Political Economy, 12(2), 246–275.

    Fu, Y. (2021). The quiet China-Africa revolution: Chinese investment. The Diplomat. Retrieved October 31, 2023, from https://thediplomat.com/2021/11/the-quiet-china-africa-revolution-chinese-investment/

    Gana, M. I., Bashir, A. A., Zurkallaini, A. M., Abubakar, S. D., & Fauziyya, M. R. (2024). Nigeria-China bilateral relations: Trade, investment, and political influence. Kashere Journal of Politics and International Relations, 2(2), 39–48.

    Gürcan, E. C. (2022a). Deciphering the Chinese economic miracle: Lessons for the developing world. Belt & Road Initiative Quarterly, 3(2), 46–75.

    Hungerland, N., & Chan, K. (2021). Assessing China’s Digital Silk Road: Huawei’s engagement in Nigeria. LSE Ideas Digital IR.

    Jianchun, C. (2023, January 20). China-Nigeria cooperation in the new era. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved October 13, 2023, from https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zwjg_665342/zwbd_665378/202301/t20230120_11012882.html

    McBride, J. (2023). China’s massive Belt and Road Initiative. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved November 2, 2023, from https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative

    Mitchell, C. (2023). Feature: China replaces African loans with energy investments amid faltering economy. S&P Global Commodity Insights. Retrieved November 10, 2023, from https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/101223-feature-china-replaces-african-loans-with-energy-investments-amid-faltering-economy

    Okeke-Korieocha, I. (2022). Why China funded Nigeria’s new airport terminals – Ambassador. BusinessDay NG. Retrieved October 22, 2023, from https://businessday.ng/aviation/article/why-china-funded-nigerias-new-airport-terminals-ambassador/

    Quadri, R. A. L. (2020). One Belt One Road: Should Nigeria sieve the Chinese benevolence, or accept it as a free lunch? AHBV Akdeniz Havzası ve Afrika Medeniyetleri Dergisi, 2(1), 43–77.

  • Public Policy

    John Rawls and the Pursuit of Social Justice in Contemporary Nigeria: A Philosophical Study

    Oladele Daniel Idowu, Esther Oluwaseun Idowu
    Abstract

    This article examines the potential application of John Rawls's theory of justice as fairness to the contemporary sociopolitical situation in Nigeria. With a population of over 235 million people representing diverse ethnic and religious groups, Nigeria faces significant challenges in achieving social justice, including widespread inequality, systemic corruption, ethnic tensions, and inadequate resource allocation. Drawing on a philosophical analysis informed by Rawlsian principles, this article explores how concepts such as the original position, the veil of ignorance, and the difference principle can help Nigeria overcome long-standing problems of governance and equality. Using critical analysis and theoretical application, the study demonstrates that while Rawls's framework has the potential to transform Nigeria, its implementation faces significant practical challenges, including deep-rooted corruption, systems of ethnic patronage, and historical inequalities. This article offers recommendations for adapting Rawls's theory of justice to the Nigerian context, focusing on institutional reforms, equitable resource distribution, and inclusive governance. Combining political philosophy with practical governance strategies, this analysis contributes to ongoing debates about social justice, democratic consolidation, and sustainable development in Africa's most populous country.

     

    References

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    Yusuf, I. M., & Shugaba, M. S. (2024). Contextualizing John Rawl's Theory of Social Justice in Nigeria's Democracy. Journal of Political Discourse, 2(2), 220–229.

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Security Policy

  • Security Policy

    Risks of Military Confrontation in the South Caucasus in the Context of Geopolitical Transformations

    Siranush Melikyan
    Abstract

    This article examines the key issues surrounding the formation of new military-political platforms in the South Caucasus region, which have influenced the shifting balance of power and the regional security agenda. In this regard, key issues under discussion include the new military-based cooperation and confrontation existing in the region and the geopolitical implications this may entail. Therefore, it is necessary to consider a variety of new scenarios and current dynamics. The contemporary South Caucasus remains a strategically important yet volatile region, where military cooperation and security dynamics are shaped by evolving geopolitical developments. This article analyzes the military strategies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, examining their evolving defense policies, alliances, and regional security interactions using balance-of-power theory and regional security complex theory. This study contributes to an understanding of how small states in contested regions adapt their military strategies in response to emerging geopolitical realities.

     

    References

    Asgarov, Sirus. 2026. “Comparative Lessons from Turkey-Israel and Syria Relations: A Neorealist and Game Theory Approach.” Israel Affairs, January, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2611818.

    Avdaliani, E. (2022). Shifting Global Balance of Power and the South Caucasus. In: New World Order and Small Regions. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4037-8_2.

    Babayev, A. (2020). Nagorno-Karabakh: The Genesis and Dynamics of the Conflict. In: Babayev, A., Schoch, B., Spanger, HJ. (eds) The Nagorno-Karabakh deadlock. Studien des Leibniz-Instituts Hessische Stiftung Friedens- und Konfliktforschung. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25199-4_2.

    Babayev, A., Spanger, HJ. (2020). A Way Out for Nagorno-Karabakh: Autonomy, Secession—or What Else?. In: Babayev, A., Schoch, B., Spanger, HJ. (eds) The Nagorno-Karabakh deadlock. Studien des Leibniz-Instituts Hessische Stiftung Friedens- und Konfliktforschung. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25199-4_14.

    Bashirova, A. (2024). Evolution of Strategic Relations Between Azerbaijan and Israel During the Heydar Aliyev Period. In: Yavuz, M.H., Gunter, M.M., Abilov, S. (eds) Heydar Aliyev and the Foundations of Modern Azerbaijan. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58265-3_10.

    Cheterian, Vicken. 2024. “Technological Determinism or Strategic Advantage? Comparing the Two Karabakh Wars between Armenia and Azerbaijan.” Journal of Strategic Studies 47 (2): 214–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2022.2127093.

    Dadparvar, Shabnam, and Amin Parto. 2026. “New Actors in Arms Procurement in the South Caucasus: The Azerbaijan–Armenia Arms Race after the Dissolution of the Republic of Artsakh.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261416945.

    Freedman, Robert O. 2023. “Moscow and Jerusalem: A Troubled 75-Year Relationship.” Israel Affairs 29 (3): 492–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2023.2206211.

    Gülseven, Enver. 2024. “Ontological Security-Seeking in Turkish–Israeli Relations: Prospects and Challenges of Normalisation.” Israel Affairs 30 (1): 125–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2024.2295620.

    Hovsepyan, Levon, and Artyom A. Tonoyan. 2024. “From alliance to ‘soft conquest’: the anatomy of the Turkish-Azerbaijani military alliance before and after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war.” Small Wars and Insurgencies 35 (4): 622-655. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2312957.

    Ismayilov, Elnur (2013). Israel and Azerbaijan: The Evolution of a Strategic Partnership (February 8). Israel Journal of foreign Affairs VII: 1. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2535158.

    Kalbizada, Elnur Hashim, and Eldar Arif Jafarov. 2025. “Israel–Georgia Relations: Factors and Stages.” Israel Affairs 31 (2): 230–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2469451.

    Omidi, Ali. 2025. “Azerbaijan’s Relations with Israel: Classic Alliance, Strategic Partnership, or Marriage of Convenience.” Israel Affairs 31 (1): 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537121.2025.2444042.

    Öztiğ, Laçin Idil. 2023. “A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Foreign Policy on the Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflicts (1988-2020).” Insight Turkey 25 (2): 139-162. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48732438.

    Poghosyan, T., Martirosyan, A. (2013). What the People Think: Key Findings and Observations of a Town Hall Meeting Project in Azerbaijan, Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh. In: Kambeck, M., Ghazaryan, S. (eds) Europe’s Next Avoidable War. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137030009_7.

    Sharova, Natalia, and Ronen A. Cohen. 2025. The Quest for Regional Leadership: Constructed Revisionism and Türkiye’s South Caucasus Policy (2002–2024). Journal of Asian and African Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096251380754.

    Sharova, Natalia, and Ronen A. Cohen. 2026. “The Pillars of Türkiye’s Constructed Revisionist Vision of the South Caucasus Policy, 2002–2024.” Cogent Arts & Humanities 13 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2026.2631310.

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    Vasilyan, Syuzanna. 2026. “Armenia’s Policy ‘Twist’ to Cumbersome Tactical ‘Hedging’.” Journal of Eurasian Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/18793665261442870.

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  • Security Policy

    Rethinking the Sharing of Challenges in Allied Relations: Indicators for Assessing Relations in the Dynamics of Armenian-Russian Military Cooperation

    Alen Ghevondyan
    Abstract

    This article analyzes the main trends in rethinking challenges in the dynamics of Armenian-Russian military cooperation. In this regard, it comparatively examines how alliances have played a key role throughout the history of international relations, from the Peloponnesian Wars to modern times. As alliances of states formed both for collective defense and to project influence through pooled resources in relation to other alliances and international systems, alliances have continually faced a range of internal and external challenges. These challenges have primarily been related to the level of mutual trust between member states, the degree to which their interests coincide, and the fulfillment—or non-fulfillment—of mutual commitments. This problem has become particularly acute in the 21st century, when formally concluded alliance treaties have not always been fully implemented in practice; that is, alliances created through mutual assistance agreements have not always functioned effectively. In this context, it is crucial to identify, systematize, and analyze the indicators and variables that determine the willingness of bilateral or multilateral state alliances with formally signed treaties to provide mutual support in real-world political and military situations. From this perspective, this article particularly examines and evaluates the structure, nature, and viability of the formal alliance between Armenia and Russia in the new realities of contemporary international relations.

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Book Review

  • Book Review

    Israel, Jonathan I. 2023. Spinoza, Life and Legacy. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Michiel Leezenberg
    Abstract

    This book analyzes the life and legacy of the world-renowned Dutch philosopher Benedict Spinoza, taking into account that some of Spinoza's ideas are continually revived to serve as either the subject of criticism or the source material for the creation of new concepts, thus serving philosophy at every stage of its development. Such fruits of philosophical research subsequently serve science as such. Spinoza is one of the thinkers whose work remains noteworthy today, as his understanding of the world represents a complex interweaving of ontological and epistemological ideas, within the context of which a corresponding human figure, with its soul, body, and social being, is precisely defined. In developing this system, the philosopher often addresses questions that are the most problematic for philosophical science, questions that pit researchers from different fields and even scientific disciplines against each other. In addition to the key philosophical problems, Spinoza’s theory contains other, less fundamental but no less significant issues. The interpretation of God, the search for the optimal method of cognition—all these aspects of Spinoza's theory—have been subject to both serious criticism and support. In both cases, Spinoza's views stimulate scholars to think.

    References

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    Robert, Jean-Dominique. 1968. Martial Gueroult, Spinoza, t. I: Dieu (Éthique, 1). Paris, Aubier-Montaigne.

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    Spruit, Leen, and Pina Totaro. 2011. The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza’s Ethica. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004210578.

    The Collected Works of Spinoza, Volume II: Benedictus de Spinoza, edited and translated by Edwin Curley. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016.

    van de Ven, Jeroen M. M. 2022. Printing Spinoza: A Descriptive Bibliography of the Works Published in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004467996.

    Žižek, Slavoj. 2004. Organs without Bodies: Deleuze and Consequences. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203699874.