Beyond the Checklist: Advancing Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Programs for a New Generation through the Lens of the Gendered Reintegration Experiences of Former PKK Guerrillas

Abstract

This study examines the reintegration trajectories of former Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) fighters in the absence of a formal disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) system, exploring how gender and political discourse shape post-conflict reintegration. It critically examines the traditional United Nations DDR model in the context of PKK’s non-mission setting and reframes reintegration as a socially and politically situated process rather than a primarily technical one. The mixed-methods design draws on 20 semi-structured interviews with 12 former PKK fighters (six women and six men) and eight community leaders, alongside a large dataset of Turkish-language content published on X (formerly Twitter) between 2010 and 2025, analyzed for topic and sentiment using OpenAI’s GPT-4o mini-model. The results show that disarmament occurred voluntarily and gradually without institutional recognition, while demobilization never developed as a systematic or state-sponsored process; former combatants instead relied on family support, informal labor markets, diaspora networks, and political connections to facilitate socioeconomic reintegration, though many reported significant declines in physical and psychological well-being. Drawing on feminist security theory, the study demonstrates that reintegration is deeply gendered, with female former combatants facing particular challenges and forms of exclusion. By integrating the personal experiences of former PKK fighters with broader societal and elite discourse, the study advances a new-generation understanding of reintegration and disarmament, arguing that it should be seen as a socially and politically negotiated process shaped by local context, gender relations, and public perceptions rather than a standardized technical intervention.